8. 100 BCE- 100 CE-Women and the Han Empire
Women played prominent leadership roles in Asia, mainly in China during the Han dynasty. A group of powerful women included the first female monarch, an empress, and a court historian.
How to cite this source?
Remedial Herstory Project Editors. "8. 100 BCE - 100 CE - WOMEN AND THE HAN EMPIRE" The Remedial Herstory Project. November 1, 2025. www.remedialherstory.com.
While the Roman Empire thrived in Eurasia, the Han dynasty came to power in China in 202 BCE. The dynasty succeeded the short-lived Qin dynasty and was known for its civil service and government structure, the nationalization of the private salt and iron industries, inventions, and adoption of Confucianism. But did these advances improve the lives of women that lived there?
In many ways the Han Empire was similar to the Roman Empire. To understand the impact the Han had on women, it would also be helpful if you viewed Chapter Six: Asian Philosophies and Women’s Place to learn more about the development of Confucianism before it became state policy.
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China
From its earliest years, the Han leadership realized that philosophies can be powerful tools for solidifying an empire. As Confucius’s writings became more accepted, eventually Emperor Wu Di (who reigned from 141–87 BCE) made Confucianism the official state philosophy. Confucian schools were established to teach Confucian ethics and spread the philosophy to the masses.
For women, this had a lasting effect on the structure and expectations of their lives. “Filial piety,” or devotion to family, is central to Confucian thinking. Devotion included ancestor worship as well as submission to parental, royal, or government authority. Confucian philosophy required that women lived subjugated lives, and solidified women’s second-class status by reinforcing prohibition on women’s formal education.
Although Chinese men usually had only one wife, they frequently coupled with courtesans and wealthier men invited concubines to live permanently in the family home. Importantly, a wife was expected never to show any jealousy toward her husband's concubines. Open jealousy could be used by the husband as grounds for divorce and the Han believed this was so central to a woman’s character that it could impact her afterlife. Historian Elizabeth Milliken noted that the Han “thought there was a particularly nasty corner of hell awaiting jealous wives.”
Concubines were usually women from the lower classes with limited options in life who entered the households of the wealthier families in society. Men could ultimately acquire as many concubines as they could financially support. While sexual activity was certainly present, concubines were more like servants. This Eastern Han funeral stele for a concubine presents an interesting record of their duties:
When she entered the household, she was diligent in care and ordered our familial way, treating all our ancestors as lofty. She sought good fortune without straying, her conduct omitting or adding nothing. Keeping herself frugal, she spun thread, and planted profitable crops in the orchards and gardens. She respected the legal wife and instructed the children, rejecting arrogance, never boasting of her kindnesses. The three boys and two girls kept quiet within the women's apartments. She made the girls submissive to rituals, while giving the boys power. Her chastity exceeded that of ancient times, and her guidance was not oppressive. All our kin were harmonious and close, like leaves attached to the tree.
Concubines might also be used to provide a family with a male heir when a man’s wife only produced daughters. While a concubine and her children did not have the same respect or status of the legal wife and her children, they still might produce the male heir that could inherit property and titles where daughters could not.
Upper class women could not earn money outside the home and in fact, women were expected to remain within the home for much of their lives. They were also expected to leave their family to join their spouses when they married. A woman had no path to divorce unless her husband mistreated her father, while a husband could divorce his wife if she committed adultery, did not produce a male heir, fell seriously ill, and more. The only protection given to a wife was that she could not be divorced if she had no family to return to. Further, historian Mark Cartwright notes that divorce came with serious negative social repercussions for both the husband and the wife, so it was likely that divorce was not common.
Confucian-Han women distinguished themselves from the pastoralists and rural poor by remaining secluded and passive. One Confucian writer described the “backward” ways of the northern pastoralists stating, “In the north of the yellow river it is usually the wife who runs the household. She will not dispense with good clothing or expensive jewelry. Her husband has to settle for old horses and sickly servants. The traditional niceties between husband and wife are seldom observed, and from time to time he even has to put up with her insults."
Some women in the home weaving silk, served as midwives, and more, while women in farming regions were expected to work in the fields. Many farmers did not own their own land but worked it as tenants for a wealthy landowner. At times, women of farming families could be abused - physically or sexually - by the landowners. Some women in rural regions were also forced into prostitution in times of drought or crop failure, while prostitution was also openly practiced in cities.
Mural of Han women
Courtesan (n.), a prostitute, especially one with wealthy or upper-class clients.
Concubine (n.), a woman who lives with a man but has lower status than his wife or wives.
Stele (n.), an upright stone slab or column typically bearing a commemorative inscription or relief design, often serving as a gravestone.
Sculpture of a Han woman with a bronze mirror
Tenant (n.), a person who occupies land or property rented from a landlord.
Drought (n.), a prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading to a shortage of water.
The first recorded female monarch in Asia was Anula of Sri Lanka, who ruled an island kingdom, south of India, and well outside the influence of China. According to historical records, this kingdom was established around 500 BCE and lasted until 1000 CE. Everything we know about the kingdom and Anula was recorded in the Mahavamsa, a historical chronicle. Her reign left important lessons about female leadership, but was recorded in a negative light - as most female rulers were characterized.
According to legend, the dynasty from which Anula rose was founded by an exiled Indian prince who stumbled on the island with his followers. In the first century, one of his descendants, an “evildoer,” according to the chronicle, ruled for 12 years and was murdered with poison by his concubine: Anula. Anula then went on to murder the new king and replace him with a palace guard who was her lover, and who she also had murdered later.
Anula went on to have a series of lovers whom she positioned as king, only to have them poisoned after a short rule. The chronicler, like most writers, emphasized Anula’s sexual promiscuity, common of male rulers, rather than the politics of the time and perhaps the ineptitude of these men. Eventually, she just took the throne herself. Anula ruled for just four months before she was either killed and burned on a pyre, or burned alive in her palace in a military coup.
Sri Lanka
Coup (n.), a sudden, violent, and unlawful seizure of power from a government.
Empress of Han
While not the first in Asia, Lü Zhi was the first and most notable female Empress Consort of the Han Dynasty. By surviving accounts, she was, like Anula, a vicious woman. She and Emperor Gaozu were a formidable pair: he had a good eye for talent and recruited experts to guide him, she a ruthless defender of his rule. In the early years of the empire, she demonstrated skills as an administrator and established important political connections. After the empire was secured and enemies of the Han defeated, she had two of the generals who had elevated her husband to his position assassinated to prevent them from being political competition.
Lü Zhi had two children, a daughter Yuan and a son, Huidi, but her position was still tenuous because she had a whole harem of her husband's concubines and their sons to contend with. At any moment, the emperor’s favor could shift. Her husband was particularly fond of his concubine Lady Qi and their son Liu Ruyi, giving him lands and wealth. But the Emperor was convinced to maintain the line of succession, so when Emperor Gaozu died, Huidi became the new emperor and Lü Zhi became Empress Dowager, a regent for her young son who wielded incredible power.
Lü Zhi controlled the empire with cruelty. She executed rivals of her son - including sons within her husband's former harem - in order to consolidate her power. It took time to coax Liu Ruyi out of his estate, but when he finally came to her palace, she promptly had him poisoned.
The fate of his mother, Lady Qi, was even worse. Lü Zhi ordered her soldiers to imprison Lady Qi in a pigsty, pull out her tongue, blind her, and then chop off all her limbs. Disgusted with his mother, Huidi withdrew from imperial management, yet this left even more power in her hands. When he died, she put an infant in power, then another, allowing her to rule the Han Empire as regent for about 15 years. While Lü Zhi was ruthless in her ambition, she ushered in a time of stability and is said to have improved the lives of the poor.
Empress Lu statue
Harem (n.), the wives (or concubines) of a polygamous man.
Empress Dowager (n.), the widow or mother of an emperor in a Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese empire.
Ban Zhao
At the height of the Han Dynasty, another notable woman named Ban Zhao took on the role of court historian. She lived in China between 45 and 115 CE and is an example of a woman born to an elite family of scholars. She was the daughter of a wealthy sheep and cattle farmer as well as court historian and sister to another, and many people recognize that her connection to men of such standing gave her opportunities normally closed to women. Primarily, Ban Zhao benefitted from a classical education that would serve her for the rest of her life.
Like most elite women, Ban Zhao got married at a very young age, at 14, and left court to live with her husband’s family. Ban Zhao did all that was expected of her, and she was especially secure when she had a son. Ban Zhao’s husband died young, however, and Confucian practice required her to stay with her husband’s family while their son grew up. Ban Zhao’s brother, Ban Gu, occupied an elevated position at the imperial court as the official court historian, like his father had been. He invited her to rejoin her family at the palace. Her husband’s family saw what an advantage it would be for their heir to grow up at court, so Ban Zhao returned to court with her child at her side.
She worked as a historian with her brother, wrote poetry, and taught the children of the palace - boys as well as girls - the Classics, astronomy, and mathematics. Several members of the royal family also commissioned poetry from Ban Zhao to mark special occasions. She even famously refused to ride in the same carriage as the emperor so she would not distract him from his important responsibilities. Palace Lady Ban, as she became known, was so admired that she was able to invite another one of her brothers, Ban You, to join her at court. He worked in the imperial library, collecting, and editing ancient books that were almost lost in the transition to Han rule.
Court could be a dangerous place as political lines were sharply drawn. Wisely, Palace Lady Ban and her brother preferred to remain neutral when it came to politics. Instead, they built the family name on scholarship and service. She picked up the work her father and brother had started, completing The History of the Han, using private imperial documents. Many historians regard this work as her most valuable contribution to the world.
Ban Zhao became so trusted by the empress that she was able to advise the ruling family away from decisions that might reflect badly on them. At one memorable point, Empress Deng was reluctant to let a family member retire from his post in order to mourn his mother who had just died, because the family was worried they might lose some political power if this man retired. Ban Zhao reminded the empress that the court would long remember her unwillingness to yield, as “yielding to others” was a Confucian virtue. As Deng wrote in her autobiography years later, “One word from Mother Ban and the great men withdrew.” Ban Zhao was so beloved that the royal family and everyone at court went into formal mourning when Ban Zhao died in 119 or 120.
Yet, Ban Zhao’s legacy when it comes to women is a bit complicated. She is best known for a book of advice called Admonitions for Women or Lessons for Women. In it, Ban Zhao makes a very persuasive case that all girls must be educated just as all boys were. She even scolded male scholars, saying, “Now look at the gentlemen of the present age. They only knew that wives must be controlled, and that the husband’s rule and precedence be established [...] but if one only teaches men and does not teach women, is that not ignoring the essential relation between them?”
The problem arises when we look at what she tells us girls and women should learn. Confucian philosophy offered numerous paths for boys and men to achieve ren, or “humanity,” including respect, righteousness, altruism, and integrity. According to Ban Zhao, the chief aspects of ren for girls are remaining modest, practicing good hygiene, and staying focused on tasks such as weaving. She advocates that a good wife should obey her husband and her mother-in-law without hesitation and without complaint.
Admonitions for Women highlights the need for balance and harmony in the home, especially between a husband and wife. She wrote, “The Way of Husband and Wife is associated with yin and yang and reaches to godliness; surely it is an expansive principle of Heaven and Earth and the greatest form of conjugation among human relationships.” For Ban Zhao, the yin and yang of marriage are expressed through the authority and control of the man and the righteous service of the woman. If either spouse is not fulfilling their role the home will fall into conflict and despair. Thus, she emphasizes that a woman’s role was to be subservient to her husband to avoid such conflict and disrepair.
“It is a cardinal rule for her to be subordinate to others,” Ban Zhao wrote, and preparation for a subservient life begins within a few days of a girl’s birth. She proclaimed that a newborn girl should be placed under a bed—not on the bed—so she will always know her place. The baby girl should be given something to play with to emphasize the hard work that will be expected of her. In some translations the word for the toy is “tile,” interpreted as broken pottery, representing a harsh life. But some scholars think that Ban Zhao was suggesting baby girls play with a ceramic whorl, something she would learn to use when spinning and weaving. The plaything emphasizes feminine domesticity and not necessarily a harsh life.
Finally, the girl’s birth should be marked with fasting and an announcement of her arrival to the ancestors that she will grow up to honor. All of these practices establish a girl’s lowly place in her family right from the start.
Ultimately, Ban Zhao summed up her lessons by advising women to be single-minded about everything, but especially about devotion to their husbands. That extends even to staying in an unhappy marriage and remaining unmarried after a husband’s death. The woman should not be too curious and should never challenge anything but dedicate herself to a life of perfect service.
In the end, Ban Zhao was a woman who lived an unusual and amazing life. She was a beloved staple of the Chinese court, and dedicated her life to the service of preserving its history and advising its leaders, like Empress Deng, whom she educated personally. She fought for the equal education of girls, even if today we might question what she was advocating that women learn.
Ban Zhao was a pioneer for women who happened to live in a time and place in which women dared not reach for too much. At the same time, even the other women in her family did not share her views. A sister to Ban Zhao’s husband wrote a treatise disputing Admonitions for Women. Unfortunately, that work has been lost.
Court (n.), the residence, councilors, and officials of a sovereign or monarch.
Ban Zhao
Ban Zhao
Empress Deng
Whorl (n.), a small wheel or pulley in a spinning wheel, spinning machine, or spindle.
Vietnam
While the Han Dynasty expanded its control over the provinces of China, it also sought to expand China’s borders. In doing so, they found that some of the greatest opposition to their expansion came from women.
Sisters Trung Trac and Trung Nhi were the daughters of a prominent general and politician who had become a vassal for the Chinese when they first invaded Vietnam and who pushed back against the Chinese when it became necessary to protect the Vietnamese people. The sisters were well-educated and even studied martial arts with their father, as Vietnamese society was far more progressive in their views of women than their Chinese counterparts. Women had social positions, could inherit property of their husbands or fathers, and had more rights in their marriages.
Increased efforts of control by the Chinese inspired additional resistance from the Vietnamese vassals and the population. Trung Trac had married a general from a neighboring district, Thi Sach, and fomented a rebellion among the upper classes. He was soon captured and executed by the Chinese. Trung Trac, alongside her sister Trung Nhi, began to mobilize local people of all classes to rise up against Chinese rule. They spearheaded a force of 80,000 soldiers, and they decided to lead from the front.
The two sisters and even their elderly mother were among the 36 female generals leading this army against the Chinese. The Trung sisters and their army stormed several dozen Chinese-run citadels and the governor’s home, successfully forcing him out of the region. Trung Trac was then named queen, and reigned alongside her sister. Unfortunately, the Han overthrew the sisters a few years later, and they threw themselves into a river to avoid torture and execution by the Chinese.
The two sisters remain a symbol of not only feminine power, but of freedom and Vietnam’s ability to rise above oppression. They drove the mighty Chinese out of their lands with a massive army willing to follow them and their female leadership within the army where their male predecessors had failed. Their reign was short, but their memory has been preserved even into the 20th century struggles against Japanese encroachment, French imperialism, and American involvement in the Vietnam War.
Trung sisters riding elephants into battle
Vassal (n.), a person who received protection and land from a political official in return for loyalty and service.
Citadel (n.), a fortress, typically on high ground, protecting or dominating a city.
Trung sister’s statue in Ho Chi Minh City
Conclusion
Despite devastatingly low opinions of women, limited rights, and a horrible status for women in China, there are notable women who defied patriarchal structures, secured power, and became the subject of history. While these outliers are known, many women’s stories have been lost to time.
Why did these women stand the test of time, and how are they symbolic of their time or region? How can their stories be applied to modern female leadership? What stories have we lost? What were the likely experiences of average women? And how would they have viewed these brave women?
