Byzantine Empire

With the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire experienced a Golden Age. For women, this was a period of transition from pagan to Christian theology; a transition from diverse deities that included the divine feminine, to the acceptance of an all male God. Women had been instrumental in the spreading of Christianity, and many became martyrs in the quest to spread the gospel. Despite the instrumental role of women, the spread of Christianity ultimately led to further subordination as the patriarchal governing structures adopted it.

Painting titled, “The Last Communion of Saint Mary of Egypt”

Constantine was tolerant of all religions in the empire and eventually accepted Christianity to some extent. His conversion ended the long persecution of Christians and began the process of repressing pagan practices - including removing the altar to the Goddess of Victory from the Senate House - but pagans still existed and led throughout the empire. 

Byzantium was importantly inclusive, as the empire was vast and expansive. People of different ethnicities, backgrounds, and cultures thrived within the empire, and even its definition of gender was less restrictive and binary. Mary of Egypt - considered a saint in the eastern orthodox Christian tradition - achieved sainthood after she gave up prostitution for a pious life in the desert. She cut her hair and impersonated a man, and she is depicted in Byzantine art as masculine, with short hair and no curves; notably different from depictions of the feminine Virgin Mary, for example. This was a common trope of the era: women could attain holiness and male-like virtue by transcending the limitations of their sex. 

It is in this context that female leaders rose to power in Byzantium, although none ruled the empire outright, but rather as a consort to the emperor. Most of the wives of the emperors are known and recorded in history, but several Byzantine empresses are notable for interesting reasons. 

Helena was the mother of Constantine the Great. Her origins were likely humble, and she may have even been a prostitute, because she later became a concubine to Constantius (Constantine’s father). She briefly disappears from the historic record and reemerges when her son becomes emperor. In 306 CE, Helena moved to his court, and Constantine elevated her to Augusta, which means that she was considered an empress and a holy person.

Fausta 

Constantine‘s wife, Fausta, is also interesting here because her inclusion in history shed a different light on Constantine’s legacy. According to some accounts, she died in a bath and he was blamed by his critics for her death. The official version of the story is that Fausta accused Constatine’s oldest son (from a previous marriage) of raping her. Constantine, believing her, had his oldest son and heir promptly executed, before his mother Helena could intervene and convince him that perhaps Fausta had lied. Constantine then turned his rage on Fausta and had her locked and smothered in a bath. 

Roman coinage depicting Fausta. The left is of her face, the right shows her holding her infants, two future emperors of Rome.

But a modern theory suggests that the affair was consensual, as the son was closer to Fausta’s age than Constantine. Further, this theory posits that she died in the bath while having an abortion to hide the affair. Whether her death was an accident, murder, or she was forced to have an abortion is uncertain, but we do know that the woman who had given birth to three future emperors was locked in the spa and she died. This tells us a lot about Constantine’s view of women, and even that abortion practices were known.

Despite her potential sideline role in Fausta’s death, Helena was distraught by these events and left on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where she constructed two churches where Jesus had been born and where he had died. According to tradition, when excavation began for construction of the church near the site of Jesus’ death, Helena found three crosses. Among these was what she believed to be the cross and nails from the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. To test it, a severely ill woman from a nearby village touched all three crosses, and upon touching the cross of Jesus, was healed. On this site, the famous Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built, and it remains one of the holiest sites in the Christian faith today. On her return to Rome, she brought a large piece of the cross with her which can still be seen today at the Basilica of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem, just outside of Rome. Christian scholars claim that Helena took the nails and placed one in Constantine’s helmet, and another in the bridle of his horse to protect him. 

Theodora

The empire grew and thrived over the next several centuries and by the sixth century reached its peak. Here and across the globe, a woman’s path to power was often remarkable. Some of the most powerful women in world history had incredible rags to riches stories; some even began their lives as slaves and prostitutes. For example, Theodora reigned as empress of the Byzantine Empire alongside her husband, Emperor Justinian I, from 527 CE until her death in 548 CE. She came to the court as an actress, stripper, and possibly a prostitute who won a beauty contest, capturing the heart of Justinian. After their marriage, they ruled the empire together. 

Mosaic of Theodora

Everything we know about her comes from biased contemporary historians. One is the court history commissioned by Justinian written by Procopius, and the other is The Secret History, also by Procopius, that paints Justinian and Theodora to be the worst thing to happen to Byzantium. Sources from the period are problematic with regard to Theodora, in particular, as they are all written by men. A Byzantine woman doing anything but being pretty and submissive would have been seen as improper. Procopius said she was scheming, unprincipled, and immoral– as most assertive and powerful women were often portrayed - and he wrote of lurid sexual scandals she was supposedly involved in. In spite of her portrayal by the “official” historian, Theodora was a valuable partner who was directly involved in state affairs. 

During a riot in Constantinople, Theodora convinced Justinian not to flee. Procopius credited her with saying, 

I do not care whether or not it is proper for a woman to give brave counsel to frightened men; but in moments of extreme danger, conscience is the only guide. Every man who is born into the light of day must sooner or later die; and how can an Emperor ever allow himself to become a fugitive? If you, my Lord, wish to save your skin, you will have no difficulty in doing so. We are rich, there is the sea, there too are our ships. But consider first whether, when you reach safety, you will not regret that you did not choose death in preference. As for me, I stand by the ancient saying: royalty makes the best shroud.

Theodora’s influence was palpable everywhere. She contributed to the downfall of prominent men, including a pope – it’s no wonder Procopius wrote so poorly of her. Theodora was known for her social reforms and her charitable work at orphanages, hospitals, and a home for former prostitutes seeking to reenter respectable society. When Justinian fell ill with Bubonic plague that was ravaging the world, Theodora ruled alone, demonstrating control, political savvy, and perhaps some vindictiveness against her court rivals. Perhaps what is most telling of her character is that after her death, Justinian's leadership suffered significantly. 

Francia 

Theodora would have been in contact with other queens across the globe, particularly in Europe. Western Europe was politically turbulent compared to Byzantium. Instead of a unified empire, warlords referred to themselves as "kings" and emulated Roman customs. Our knowledge of women from this era primarily comes from Gregory, Bishop of Tours, through his work The Ten Books of History. Gregory displayed biases favoring certain women over others and often relied on common stereotypes about women.

An illustration of Radegund

Consider Radegund, for instance. She resided in Francia (modern-day France) and was a Thuringian princess who witnessed the murder of her family before being captured and compelled to marry her enemy. Her writings provide profound psychological insight into the impact of conflict on elite women during that time. Despite being married, Radegund displayed agency by rejecting the advances of the king and dedicating herself to the church. Eventually, she convinced him to allow her to live in a convent, where she flourished. Her church became one of Western Europe's most powerful and influential after she successfully acquired a piece of Helena's true cross of Christ. For Radegund, the opportunity to study, serve, and escape her husband's clutches must have been a great relief, and she was later declared a saint. 

Upon her husband's death, having unified Francia under the Merovingian family through warfare and violence, he left behind five sons from different marriages. His kingdom was divided among four of his sons, not the illegitimate one. The two youngest sons inherited smaller portions of the kingdom and spent their lives attempting to expand their territories by 

warring against their brothers. The third son, Sigebert, waited until he was older to marry a princess, legitimizing his claims. In 567, he married Brunhild, a Visigoth princess from Spain, in an elaborate Roman-style wedding to strengthen the alliance between the Visigoths and Francia.

Brunhild

The fourth son married three times in his life and was notorious for his involvement with enslaved palace women. His second wife was Galswintha, Brunhild's older sister, who married him on the condition that he would give up this habit. However, shortly after their marriage, Galswintha discovered he had resumed his affairs with a servant named Fredegund. Tragically, Galswintha was found dead in her bed in 568, and within a month, Fredegund married the king, initiating a string of at least 12 murders attributed to this ambitious queen. 

Fredegund attempting to kill her daughter Rigunth

Fredegund's life was marked by violence, deception, and assassination to maintain her hold on power. After murdering Brunhild's sister, she went on to kill her own husband as well. However, as the king's third wife, Fredegund also had to deal with the legitimacy of her stepchildren in the line of succession and plotted to endanger them, ensuring her own children would ascend to power and inherit the kingdom.

Standing opposite to Fredegund was Brunhild. Brunhild was not a weak queen; she was a master of politics, having been trained and prepared her whole life to be a queen. She established alliances to secure her power, negotiated prominent marriages for her daughter and granddaughters, oversaw a trial as the first queen of the medieval era, and was a lead negotiator in the first treaty of Western Europe. Despite the prevailing disapproval of female leaders, her contemporaries had to acknowledge her exceptional abilities. 

The rivalry between these two queens appears to be a tale straight out of a storybook. However, it is crucial to approach these accounts with skepticism, given the historical tendency to portray Fredegund as a femme fatale in contrast to Brunhild's heroic image. These two rival queens held onto power for nearly a century, providing the stability that their sons could not. Their reigns encompassed modern-day France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, western and southern Germany, and parts of Switzerland. In the medieval period, only Charlemagne briefly controlled more territory than these two women. Despite various husbands and sons coming and going, these queens ensured consistency in their realms. Whenever diplomatic letters were addressed to their male offspring and grandsons, the queens would reply using their own names and titles. Even Pope Gregory, later known as Gregory the Great, recognized where true power resided and never made the mistake of addressing them incorrectly, referring to Brunhild as Queen of the Franks.

Brunhild was concerned about her legacy and, after securing her kingdoms, focused on church work. In alliance with the Pope, she supported the mission to convert pagans in Britain. Brunhild revived old Roman trading networks and roads, showed mercy to her rival's living son, advocated for battered women, and exhibited tolerance towards Jews in her kingdom. Many of her reforms necessitated raising taxes on the aristocracy and the church, both of whom sought exemptions or worked against her.

In contrast, Fredegund continuously sought to expand her kingdom, displaying exceptional strategic prowess. One notable instance was her use of a unique strategy involving her soldiers holding sticks resembling trees to advance at night, pre-dating other references to such tactics. Instead of promoting God's work, she used the spoils of war to reward loyal bishops and buy the church's favor. 

The death of Brunhild

Fredegund’s life was marked by manipulation, involving at least 12 credible murders, and a decade as queen regent for her son. She died without much fanfare, while Brunhild outlived many of her contemporaries and champions, including Pope Gregory. She even outlived both of her children and most of her grandchildren. However, in her seventies, Brunhild and her four grandsons met their demise shortly after their father's untimely death, despite having finally united the Franks. The boys, none older than 11, went to war against Fredegund's son, Chlothar II, and were betrayed by their Mayor of the Palace. One boy managed to escape, the youngest was sent to be raised by their enemies, and the two eldest were executed. 

Brunhild, in her old age, might have expected exile or confinement to a convent, but instead, she suffered a brutal and public death, reserved usually for kings: whipped, bloodied, and paraded before the masses before being trampled by a wild horse. She was accused of all of Fredegund's crimes and labeled a king killer. This violent death can be attributed to the threat she posed to the new king's claim to power, given she was the most influential person in Western Europe. He and his chroniclers utilized the same old tactics of blaming women to elevate their male hero.

King Chlothar II and the betraying aristocracy signed the Edict of Paris, which essentially curtailed the powers of the king and granted lifetime hereditary appointments to the Mayor of the Palace, who had betrayed Brunhild. This led to the rise of the Carolingians, Charlemagne's great great grandfathers. King Chlothar II erased Brunhild and her entire line from the legal record and made no effort to honor his mother, effectively suppressing knowledge of these two queens for centuries. The Carolingians manipulated history to depict themselves as heroes and vilify their rivals, relying on misogyny as a useful tool. Nevertheless, women continued to be involved in politics under the Carolingians, such as Charlemagne's influential mother.

Japan 

Across the world, another queen, Suiko, was breaking barriers and coming to power in 593. There was some precedent for female rule in Japan. Himiko was an ancient queen of legend, but she is not mentioned in Japanese histories, and historians disagree on where her kingdom was. She was noted for being a shaman queen who never married and lived in a fortress where she was served by 1,000 women.

Empress Suiko

Suiko, living centuries later, was well documented. She was the daughter of Emperor Kimmei and at 18 became the empress consort of Emperor Bidatsu, who reigned from 572 to 585. After a short rule by the Emperor Yomei, interclan warfare broke out over succession. Suiko's brother, Emperor Sujun or Sushun, reigned next but was murdered in 592. Her uncle, Soga Umako, a powerful clan leader who was likely behind Sushun's murder, convinced Suiko to take the throne with another of Umako's nephews, Shotoku, and she administered the government as empress for 30 years. 

Empress Suiko is credited with ordering the promulgation of Buddhism, the religion of her family - the Soga - beginning in 594. During her reign, Buddhism became firmly established; the second article of the 17-article constitution instituted under her reign promoted Buddhist worship, and she sponsored Buddhist temples and monasteries.

During Suiko's reign, China first diplomatically recognized Japan, and Chinese influence increased. This included introducing the Chinese calendar and the Chinese system of government bureaucracy. Chinese monks, artists, and scholars also were brought into Japan during her reign. Further, the power of the emperor also became stronger under her rule.

Korea 

To the north in Korea, Queen Seondeok became the first female monarch in the Kingdom of Silla starting in 632. Her rule laid the groundwork for more female rulers, though unfortunately, so many aspects of her rule have been lost to time. 

She ruled for 15 years and used skillful diplomacy to form a strong alliance with Tang China and secure Sillan independence. Her foreign policy allowed Seondeok to form alliances with leading families of Silla. She arranged marriages between prominent families and created a power bloc that unified the Korean Peninsula under her rule and ended the Three Kingdoms period. She also promoted programs to care for widows, orphans, the elderly, and the poor. While she was popular among the people, the male aristocracy resented her. 

Seondeok was challenged by Lord Bidam who rallied supporters under the motto, "Women rulers cannot rule the country." As his rebellion began, Seondeok fell ill and Bidam and his followers saw a star fall, which they saw as a sign of her death or fall from power. Superstition was a powerful motivator, so one of her generals and political allies flew a flaming kite in the sky to make it appear that the star was back in its place. 

After ten days, Bidam and his co-conspirators were seized and executed. However, Seondeok died of natural causes only a few days later. She, unlike other female monarchs around the world, had the chance to choose a successor and left her kingdom to another woman – her cousin Queen Jindeok. The Silla Kingdom could also boast Korea's third and final female ruler, Queen Jinseong, who ruled nearly 200 years later from 887 to 897.

China 

Both Theodora and Fredegund found paths to power through prostitution and cruelty, but this wasn’t unique to the West. In China, another empress, Wu Zetian, was rising and was regarded as one of the cruelest rulers in China’s history, which may say more about the chroniclers than it does about her.

Wu Zetian

The Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), during which she ruled, was a Golden Age for China, producing gorgeous art and culture while the Silk Roads were at the height of their influence. 

During Wu’s life, overland trade routes brought significant entrepreneurial opportunities with the West and other parts of Eurasia, making the capital of the Tang Empire the most cosmopolitan of the world’s cities. Merchants traded many goods, and commerce involving textiles, minerals, and spices was particularly prominent. With such avenues of contact, Tang China was ready for changes in society and culture. 

Tang women were assertive, active, and visible; they rode horses, donned male attire, and participated in politics. Wu, in particular, was a master of politics. She came to the court as a concubine - one of many - to the emperor. She bore him four sons and earned his favor, along with the respect of the court and even the empress, and she knew the ins and outs of court because attendants would report gossip and even trivial events. 

Greedy for power, she looked to eliminate the Empress Wang. After giving birth to a baby daughter, she brought her to the empress to hold. When the Empress Wang had played with the baby, Wu killed her own infant daughter and blamed the murder on Empress Wang. The emperor believed this and promoted Wu to empress. Wu immediately put Wang and her other rivals to death, exiling their families. 

She then purged the court of those disloyal to her. When the emperor died, her son became emperor, and she, a regent who could rule from the shadows. But this arrangement had its limitations, and in 690, she conferred upon herself the title “Holy and Divine Emperor,” founded what she called the “Zhou dynasty” and ruled for the next 15 years as the only woman emperor in Chinese history until she was finally deposed in a coup.

Male historians recorded her legacy with contempt. Many are quick to point out the horrific and cruel ways with which she ruled, but this was not uncommon for male leaders around the world. Yet, she also recruited qualified officials to do important jobs, helped to spread Buddhism, expanded the empire, and sponsored the writing of agricultural texts to improve production. Finally, Wu represents the rare elite woman to support the women behind her. She campaigned to improve the status of women. She advised scholars to write and edit biographies of exemplary women. Wu believed the ideal emperor was one who ruled as a mother rules over her children. 

Conclusion

Women rulers were somewhat common in monarchies throughout world history, coming to power as consorts, regents, and through closeness with power, as enslaved people and prostitutes. Yet, we cannot separate the stories of these women from the men who recorded them. So many of them were portrayed as evil, violent, and horrible. It’s possible that they were, but perhaps those chroniclers were unaccustomed to women outside their domestic roles. 

How different would our knowledge of these women be if women had recorded them? Likewise, it’s important to ask how the existence of female rulers influenced the lives of everyday women in the kingdoms. Did they support female education and rights to land ownership and bodily autonomy? How did these women leave space for future female leaders? And was their rule successful?