26. 1900-1930- Women's Worlds In Collision
Die Industrielle Revolution markierte eine Ära, in der Arbeit, Produktion und Wirtschaftswachstum die Gesellschaften weltweit nachhaltig veränderten. Sie brachte auch bedeutende Veränderungen für Frauen mit sich. Frauen eröffneten sich neue Karrierewege und Führungspositionen in der Arbeitswelt, was ihnen neue Aufstiegschancen und sogar die Möglichkeit bot, die traditionelle soziale Hierarchie zu durchbrechen. Gewerkschaftsstreiks und Proteste für das Wahlrecht läuteten den Beginn kultureller und gesellschaftlicher Veränderungen hinsichtlich der Rolle der Frau in der Gesellschaft ein. Mit dem Wandel unserer Industrien und der globalen Wirtschaft veränderten sich auch die Berufe, Chancen und Lebensumstände von Frauen in dieser Zeit.
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Herausgeber des Remedial Herstory Project. „24. 1850–1950 – Die industrielle Revolution der Frauen“. Das Remedial Herstory Project. 1. November 2025. www.remedialherstory.com.
Triggerwarnung: Dieses Kapitel thematisiert Vergewaltigung und sexuelle Übergriffe.
Die Industrielle Revolution begann um 1750 in England aufgrund der dort verfügbaren natürlichen Ressourcen (im Inland und im riesigen Kolonialreich) und der Umstellung auf kapitalistische Produktionsweisen. Sie führte zu tiefgreifenden gesellschaftlichen Veränderungen, unter anderem hinsichtlich der Art der Arbeit, des Wohnorts und des Alltags. Diese grundlegenden Veränderungen zogen auch systemische Umwälzungen nach sich, beispielsweise in Bezug auf Machtverhältnisse, deren Verteilung und Lage. Viele Frauen der Arbeiterklasse wechselten von Tätigkeiten als Hausangestellte, Weberinnen und Ladenbesitzerinnen zu Fabrikarbeiterinnen. Ihre zunehmende Beteiligung am öffentlichen Leben außerhalb des Hauses, verbunden mit den unmenschlichen Arbeitsbedingungen in den Fabriken, führte zu verstärktem politischen Engagement und schließlich zu Forderungen nach politischen Rechten.
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Vor der Industrialisierung
Die Industrielle Revolution brachte in England grundlegende Veränderungen mit sich, die sich dann in ganz Europa und später in vielen anderen Gesellschaften ausbreiteten. Die Warenproduktion verlagerte sich von kleinen Manufakturen, in denen Handwerkerinnen und Handwerker ihrem Gewerbe lokal und spezialisiert nachgingen, hin zur Massenproduktion in Fabriken, die Dampf- und Wasserkraft nutzten.
In der vorindustriellen Welt hatten Frauen mehr Kontrolle über ihren Alltag. Diejenigen, die in der Produktion tätig waren, arbeiteten typischerweise im Familienbetrieb mit ihren Eltern oder ihrem Ehepartner zusammen. Ähnlich wie in bäuerlichen Familien waren die meisten Familienmitglieder in die Arbeit eingebunden – sei es im Design, in der Produktion, im Verpacken oder im Vertrieb von Waren. Sie halfen beim Betrieb der Läden oder Marktstände, kauften die benötigten Materialien ein und koordinierten die Lieferungen.
Mit der Verlagerung ihrer Arbeit in die Fabriken arbeiteten Frauen zwar etwa gleich viele Stunden, verrichteten aber körperlich extrem anstrengende und monotone Arbeit. Nach ihrer Rückkehr nach Hause waren sie weiterhin für ihre häuslichen Pflichten zuständig. In der vorindustriellen Welt war die Kinderbetreuung möglich, da die Kinder stets in der Nähe waren; in der industrialisierten Welt hingegen arbeiteten auch die Kinder.
Gemälde mit dem Titel „Königin Bertha und die Spinnerinnen“, das traditionelle Textilarbeiten von Frauen darstellt.
Textil (Subst.) , eine Art Stoff oder gewebtes Gewebe.
Fügsam (Adj.) , bereit, Kontrolle oder Anweisungen anzunehmen; unterwürfig.
Monotonie (Subst.) , Mangel an Abwechslung und Interesse; ermüdende Wiederholung und Routine
Gemälde mit dem Titel „Königin Bertha und die Spinnerinnen“, das traditionelle Textilarbeiten von Frauen darstellt.
Die industrielle Revolution
The Russo-Japanese War would be quickly and unquestionably overshadowed by the subsequent World War I. World War I is a haunting reminder of the dangers of war because just how many people were killed before world leaders (all male) called for a stop. Ten million combatants were killed, perhaps double to triple those figures for the number wounded and maimed - physically and mentally - while the number of civilians who were killed in the crossfire, starved, or lost to disease spread by war is unfathomable. World War I ended the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires and devastated others. It also led to the Great Depression, which claimed additional human lives.
World War I was caused by the same things that caused the Russo-Japanese War - the desire for power and resources. It was made worse by shifting alliances that caused more nations than necessary to get involved. What should have been an isolated conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, turned to global war because of militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism.
In a centuries-long competition for lands and conquest, Europeans had seen both a series of wars for their colonies’ independence and continued efforts by wealthy nations to assume control over poorer nations. Such a competition for influence and power was ongoing in the Balkans, where the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Russia were continuously applying pressure to significantly smaller states. In June of 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand - heir to the Austrian throne - was assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Serbian nationalists determined to retain their sovereignty. Many point to the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian heir to the throne and his wife, Sophie the Duchess of Hohenberg, as the catalyst for the war, but their murders were merely an excuse for the war that had been looming for decades owing to increasing militarization and competition over resources needed to fuel the industrial nations.
As the prospect of war was immediately thrown on the table, a complicated web of alliances was pulled to the surface. Serbia called on their ally, Russia, to back them in the war. Austria-Hungary called on their ally, the newly united Germany, to support them. Germany was eager to use this war as an excuse to expand, while the Ottomans also eagerly dove in as they wanted to challenge Russia for economic influence in the Black Sea and the Middle East. France was required by treaty to back Russia in the event of war, so the prospect of war was daunting for Germany from that start, and their experts knew they needed to quickly sack Paris to remove France from the war before turning to face Russia - the European giant - with their full strength. To do this, they decided to act immediately and invaded France on August 2, 1914, through neutral Belgium: their ultimate downfall. The violation of Belgium's neutrality and the resulting assaults on human rights, such as massacres and rape by the invaders, caused Britain, previously neutral, to join the war. Russia, France, and Britain, longtime rivals even as recently as the Russo-Japanese War, were on the same side.
The web of alliances throughout Europe was complicated and interesting for several reasons, but perhaps most interesting of all is the relationship between several of the biggest decision-makers in this war. Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany and King George of Britain were first cousins, sharing Queen Victoria as their grandmother. Tsar Nicholas was also one of George’s first cousins on the other side who cemented his connections to the British royal family by marrying Queen Victoria’s favorite granddaughter, Princess Alexandra or Alix of Hesse. Just one year before the war, all three emperors were at a family event, the wedding of Wilhelm’s daughter, Princess Victoria Louise of Prussia. These ambitious cousins were now engaged in the bloodiest war in world history. They, along with the other world leaders involved in this massive conflict that saw over twenty nations at war, would never see the battlefield, but they would send millions of their own people to die on them in the name of power.
Similarly, the war erupted around the globe, largely due to relationships countries shared (or hoped to share) with Europeans; this includes both colonial and alliance-based relationships. In Asia, hostilities began in August of 1914 when New Zealand - part of the British Commonwealth - occupied Samoa, a German territory at the time. Australia - also part of the British Commonwealth - similarly seized German New Guinea weeks later. China also declared war on the Germans, seizing their holdings in Chinese port cities, while Japan sailed into naval supremacy in the region by taking on German vessels in the region trying desperately to hold on to their colonial holdings. Other Allied forces also saw naval battle with the Germans in this region, and stretching through the Pacific.
While North American nations like Canada and the United States would join the war in Europe, most of South America remained neutral in this war. With the exception of Brazil, who sent naval, air, and medical forces to participate in the war, most South American nations that did declare war did so later in the conflict in hopes of gaining political favor, but did not become directly involved. Nonetheless, some still found themselves in the front row seats of naval battles off the coast of Chile, the Cape of Good Hope, and the Falkland Islands.
Relationships with European nations also brought about the participation of nations in the Middle East and Africa. For Africa, this included both the transporting of colonial forces to the battlefields of Europe, as well as direct warfare between nations under opposing colonial forces. British and French soldiers led local colonial troops against the German colonies of Kamerun (modern Republic of Cameroon) and Togoland (modern Togo and part of Ghana), while German soldiers and colonial forces from the colony of South-West Africa attacked the British colony of South Africa. Likewise, colonial forces from India were similarly uprooted for service on the battlefields of Europe. In many ways, it was this global explosion of war that brought into question the nature and risks of colonization itself.
Textil (Subst.) , eine Art Stoff oder gewebtes Gewebe.
Fügsam (Adj.) , bereit, Kontrolle oder Anweisungen anzunehmen; unterwürfig.
Monotonie (Subst.) , Mangel an Abwechslung und Interesse; ermüdende Wiederholung und Routine
Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and Duchess Sophie
Junge Angestellte – Jungen und Mädchen – der Lane Cotton Mill, New Orleans
Kohlebergwerke
Für Frauen aus der Arbeiterklasse war die beste Beschäftigungsmöglichkeit die Arbeit als Hausangestellte – typischerweise bei einer wohlhabenden Familie aus der Gegend. Danach folgte die Fabrikarbeit, und die schlechteste Option war die Arbeit in einem Kohlebergwerk.
Die sechsjährige Mary Davis wurde von einem Regierungsinspektor schlafend in einem walisischen Bergwerk gefunden. Sie erklärte: „Ich bin eingeschlafen, weil meine Lampe wegen Ölmangels ausgegangen war. Ich hatte Angst, weil mir jemand Brot und Käse gestohlen hatte. Ich glaube, es waren die Ratten.“ Ein anderes, ebenfalls sechsjähriges Mädchen, dessen Name nicht genannt wurde, beschrieb ihre schwere Arbeit: „Ich bin seit sechs Wochen im Bergwerk und mache zehn bis vierzehn Rechengänge am Tag. Ich trage 25 Kilo Kohle in einem Holzeimer. Ich arbeite mit meiner Schwester Jesse und meiner Mutter. Es ist dunkel, wenn wir anfangen.“ Auch die Aussage der Teenagerin Maria Gooder verdeutlicht das Ausmaß ihrer Not. Sie behauptete: „Ich eile mit meiner Schwester Anne, die achtzehn wird, zu einem Mann. Er ist gut zu uns. Ich mag es nicht, in der Grube zu sein. Ich bin müde und habe Angst. Ich gehe um 4:30 Uhr, nachdem ich Haferbrei gefrühstückt habe. Um 5 Uhr beginne ich zu eilen. Wir essen mittags zu Abend. Wir bekommen trockenes Brot und sonst nichts. Es gibt Wasser in der Grube, aber wir trinken es nicht.“
Mary Enock arbeitete mit ihrer Schwester in den Minen und war erst elf Jahre alt, und ihre Geschichte ist vielleicht die anschaulichste. Sie sagte:
Wir sind Türsteher im Viertel „Vier-Fuß- Ebene“ . Wir verlassen das Haus jeden Morgen vor sechs Uhr und bleiben bis sieben Uhr, manchmal auch länger, im Viertel. Wir bekommen zwei Pence am Tag, und unser Strom kostet uns zweieinhalb Pence pro Woche. Rachel war in einer Tagesschule und kann schon ein bisschen lesen. Sie wurde vor einiger Zeit von einer Straßenbahn angefahren und war lange krank zu Hause, aber sie hat sich erholt.
Mary und ihre Schwester mussten sich zwischen Licht in einem stockfinsteren Kohlebergwerk und einem höheren Lohn entscheiden, und eine Arbeitsunfallverletzung, wie sie ihre Schwester erlitten hatte, war einfach an der Tagesordnung.
Sultan Shah Jahan
Ausbeutung von Arbeiterinnen
Well before the true horrors of World War I would emerge on the front pages of newspapers around the world, an active group of women around the world were those involved in peace efforts during this period. From the mid-1800s onwards, there were early efforts to promote transnational women's peace work, but this wouldn’t really come to fruition until World War I, when the deadliness of war took on a whole new dimension.
One notable early example was Julia Ward Howe, an American activist, who called for a Mother's Peace Day after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. In 1873, this day was celebrated for the first time in various American cities, as well as in England, Switzerland, Italy, and France. There were also other early initiatives, although short-lived, such as the efforts of Marie Goegg from Switzerland in 1868, and the establishment of several women’s peace organizations in the late 1890s one by Eugénie Potonié-Pierre and Ellen Robinson and another in Paris by Gabrielle Wiesniewska.
In the years leading up to the war, women flocked to Europe to promote peace between nations. Jeanne Mélin, a French pacifist and feminist, attended 30 peace conferences in France during the final months of 1913. She believed deeply that women were the life givers, and as a result, could prevent wars that took life away. The work of Mélin and others of the time had a central message that women had been largely excluded from political affairs, and thus it was argued, perhaps women’s involvement in such matters could help prevent such outcomes. She advocated for using education to stamp out violent behaviors and developed a system of co-education of girls and boys centered on the idea of exchanging masculine and feminine strengths. Mélin joined many pacifists across nations of her era who claimed capitalism was responsible for war, a position that incurred the wrath of capitalists and threatened their lives.
Sensing the impending war, in the days, weeks, and months that followed men and women involved in pacifist efforts went to work. Initially, women’s pacifism focused on condemning war itself as inhumane rather than analyzing the specific political circumstances leading to the war. Then, in July, Jean Jaurès, an outspoken labor leader and pacifist, was assassinated before giving a high profile address. Mélin was a supporter of Jaurès and was horrified at his death, but the rapidly changing landscape put her perspectives in a tailspin. She was frustrated that German pacifists refused to accept German culpability in the conflict and felt pacifism without consideration for socio-political circumstances may not be the best path. By August, her home in France was bombed by the Germans, and for Mélin and other women pacifists, these early months of war served as a transition phase in their philosophical positions on war when war was no longer an abstract, far-away concept.
Peace activities faced censorship and severe restrictions in all warring nations, while neutral countries provided more opportunities for pacifists to express their disapproval of the war. For instance, in New York, 1,200 women participated in a silent women's peace parade in August 1914. In the same year, Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence from Britain and Rosika Schwimmer from Hungary toured the United States, delivering lectures on peace.
The organization of anti-war efforts led to the establishment of the Woman's Peace Party in Washington, D.C., in January 1915, with 3,000 women participating. Their program called for a convention of neutral nations, advocating continuous mediation as a means to reach a negotiated peace. Women marched in all black and wrote letters in their home countries, hoping to keep their husbands, sons, and fathers safe. One of the most popular songs in America in 1915 was “I Didn’t Raise my Boy to be a Soldier,” as women around the country - and around the world - desperately tried to keep their loved ones from becoming a number in the growing statistics of the war. While some managed to stay neutral throughout, others were inevitably dragged in; like the United States in 1917.
As matters escalated, discussions about an international women's meeting began in Europe when the International Women’s Suffrage Alliance (IWSA) canceled its scheduled congress in Berlin. Organized by Germany’s first female jurist, Anita Augspurg, and Dutch pacifist Aletta Jacobs, more than 1,000 female delegates came together at the Hague in 1915 to discuss not only the end of this war, but the prevention of wars in the future. These women had to brave political repercussions, hazardous travel, and the risk of entering already war-torn Europe to show their dedication to peace.
During the congress, participants advocated for political rights for women, democratic measures, international arbitration, democratic control of foreign policy, disarmament, free trade, and pacifist education. They viewed equity and democracy as essential prerequisites for a peaceful world order. The congress participants also believed that women's suffrage was necessary for women to have political influence and played on societal norms of motherhood to support their radical political demands.
The congress also led to the establishment of the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace (ICWPP). This committee worked to maintain international communication but faced increasing challenges due to travel restrictions, disrupted mail routes, and financial difficulties throughout the war. National sections of the ICWPP focused on spreading peace propaganda and organizing relief work in their respective countries. Activities in the warring nations faced severe restrictions and opposition from nationalist groups and even other women's organizations. Sadly, their voices were muffled by the ongoing call for supremacy through war from those who wanted no piece of their peace.
Kinderarbeiter in einer Textilfabrik
Aufsichtsperson (Subst.) , eine Person, die Arbeiter beaufsichtigt oder eine Aufgabe überwacht.
Riemen (Subst.) , ein Stück Leder, mit dem man jemanden schlägt.
Pfand (v.), die Überlassung von Gegenständen als Sicherheit für die Erfüllung eines Vertrags oder die Zahlung einer Schuld, wobei im Falle des Scheiterns der Pfandanspruch verfällt.
Pfand (Subst.) , ein Gegenstand, der als Sicherheit für geliehenes Geld hinterlegt wird.
Die Spinning Jenny
Die Spinning Jenny
Vertragsarbeiter/Bedienstete (n.) , eine Person, die sich verpflichtet, für eine andere Person für eine festgelegte Zeit gegen Zahlung von Reisekosten, Nahrung und Unterkunft zu arbeiten.
Die Spinning Jenny
Mittel- und Oberschicht
While male world leaders poured more and more of their young men onto the battlefields of Europe, women everywhere were required to play a role as well. This was meant to be a supportive role in line with cultural views of femininity, but gradually morphed into more active roles as the war dragged on and devastating numbers of male lives were lost. Initially, however, the goal was for women to serve by supporting the men who went to war - writing letters, sending small gifts and food, and general encouragement.
Yet, the war demanded a shift in women's traditional roles, blurring the lines between their expected behaviors. Propaganda portrayed women as gentle, vulnerable homemakers who were both objects of affection and victims of enemy atrocities. The men of Europe were called on to defend and attract them through their actions on the frontlines. At the same time, they were depicted as resilient and active participants in the war effort. They were told through propaganda that they could play critical roles on the “home front” for the glory of their country in the same way that their fathers, brothers, and husbands were.
In this vein of civic duty, women in multiple countries aggressively supported conscription efforts through a form of “toxic femininity,” that bullied men into doing their “male duty.” This was most evident in Britain. In 1914, the Order of the White Feather was created as a propaganda campaign to shame men into enlisting. The white feather symbol represented cowardice and neglect of duty. It was believed to have originated from cockfighting, where a white tail feather indicated a weak and passive bird. In August 1914, a group of women in Folkestone handed out white feathers to non-uniformed men to shame and pressure them to join the fight. The movement spread across the country, gaining attention in the media. Some men faced harassment and coercion, even if they were contributing to the war effort in critical civilian roles like farming, industrial production, and more.
The tactics employed by the women varied in effectiveness, sometimes targeting the wrong individuals, including injured veterans. These women’s taunts were so prolific that the government was compelled to issue badges to acknowledge civilian contributions in an effort to fix the situation, but criticism continued. The campaign stirred controversy, but the women involved remained steadfast in their beliefs that “real” men should fight to protect their country. Prominent figures such as Mary Augusta Ward, Emma Orczy, and Emmeline Pankhurst supported the movement, as suffragettes used this evolving narrative to argue that women actively involved in the war deserved full citizenship more than male pacifists or conscientious objectors.
Government-issued propaganda posters served to reinforce these gender norms. Posters played a vital role in spreading messages, and on them, women were often depicted as personifications of nations, embodying qualities like morality, virtue, innocence, and justice. The Imperial Maritime League appealed to British women to ensure their men enlisted, aligning with Kitchener's famous "Your country needs you!" poster, which targeted men. The home was portrayed as a place of security that needed protection from German aggression at any cost. Those who refused to join the war effort risked being rejected by their sweethearts and faced accusations and blame.
Hausangestellte kocht
Protest gegen Kinderarbeit bei einer Arbeiterparade
Gewerkschaften und Protest
Mit dem Beginn der Industriellen Revolution in Großbritannien wurde schließlich auch der Ruf nach einer Arbeitsmarktreform laut. Die Realität der Industrie wurde im gesamten 19. Jahrhundert von Regierungskommissionen untersucht. Die Dokumente enthüllten, dass Frauen im Durchschnitt nur ein Drittel bis zwei Drittel des Gehalts ihrer Männer verdienten. Es handelte sich um eine künstlich geschaffene Lohnstruktur, die den männlichen Ernährer und Familienoberhaupt schützte. Dies war nur eine von vielen Maßnahmen, mit denen die Industriegesellschaft darauf ausgelegt war, Männer und ihren Reichtum zu sichern. Ein weiteres Beispiel: Gewerkschaften schlossen Frauen oft vom Beitritt aus und verweigerten ihnen Weiterbildungen in höheren Berufen. Darüber hinaus wehrten sich die von Männern dominierten Gewerkschaften typischerweise gegen weibliche Erwerbstätigkeit und die gewerkschaftliche Organisierung von Frauen, da dies eine reale Bedrohung für die Arbeitsplätze und die Lohnsicherheit der Männer darstellte. Die Gewerkschaften hielten an einer Geschlechterhierarchie fest und bezeichneten Frauen als billige, ungelernte Arbeitskräfte.
Um nicht an den Rand gedrängt zu werden, engagierten sich einige Frauen politisch und gründeten eigene Gewerkschaften. Die Women’s Trade Union League (WTU) entstand 1874 in Großbritannien und führte zu einem massiven Anstieg gewerkschaftlicher Aktivitäten von Frauen. Ähnliche Entwicklungen zeigten sich in Japan, wo Frauen in den 1880er Jahren Massenstreiks gegen niedrige Löhne und Verträge organisierten, die sie zwangen, in Fabrikwohnungen fernab ihrer Familien zu leben. Dort bewiesen Frauen ihre Handlungsfähigkeit, indem sie ihre Arbeitsplätze verließen, um bei ihren Familien zu sein.
Das gewerkschaftliche Verhalten von Frauen unterschied sich je nach Familienstand. Verheiratete Frauen beteiligten sich tendenziell weniger an militanten Aktionen. Dies mag zum Teil daran gelegen haben, dass sie neben ihrer Arbeit in der Industrie und ihrer unbezahlten Hausarbeit die Gewerkschaftsarbeit nicht bewältigen konnten. Die Beteiligung von Frauen an Gewerkschaften führte zu schrittweisen Veränderungen. Löhne, Arbeits- und Lebensbedingungen verbesserten sich überall dort, wo Gewerkschaften Fuß fassten. Diese Veränderungen vollzogen sich jedoch nicht schnell genug, was einige Frauen dazu ermutigte, zusätzlichen politischen Einfluss anzustreben.
Protest der Gewerkschaften
Protest der Gewerkschaften
Protest der Gewerkschaften
Wahlrecht
From the just first days of the war, the hospitals were quickly overwhelmed from the brutality. Starting with the invasion of Belgium, women were called upon to help everywhere. Women from all walks of life, regardless of their medical skills, rushed to improvised aid stations set up in various places like schools, museums, monasteries, and castles. Contrary to the romanticized image of nurturing angels, these nurses faced physically demanding, poorly compensated, and emotionally challenging work in hospitals and convalescent facilities. Women also joined auxiliary services in the army, performing tasks like laundry, cleaning, disinfection, cooking, and sewing.
Women’s direct participation in the war can be seen best in the medical field, as they were seen as having natural qualities useful for this role. Most warring nations had tens of thousands of volunteer nurses and doctors to try to serve their country and stem the tide of extreme loss from the traumatic injuries of industrial war, the introduction of chemical warfare, psychological phenomena like shellshock, and general disease that followed warring bodies. The numbers of those wounded in this war were entirely overwhelming, and their injuries equally horrific. Medical professionals could not have saved even half of those they did without these waves of female volunteers racing around to provide treatments, change bandages, feed, clean, and comfort the wounded soldiers in the hundreds of hospitals that surrounded the battlefields of Europe.
While nursing is often considered a field that allowed women to contribute while keeping them safe from the dangers of the battlefield, an estimated 1,500 nurses lost their lives in the process as they contracted disease or fell victim to bombing and shelling when serving so close to the front lines. While serving in France, one American anesthetist, Sophie Gran, wrote that she “had just given this poor boy anesthesia when a bomb hit. We were supposed to hit the floor, but he was out and didn’t know what was going on. I took a tray and put it over our heads.” Working in these hospitals they witnessed all the greatest horrors of the war, and in doing so, they saved countless lives.
Women also contributed to the medical care of soldiers from afar by producing and packing medical supplies, donating blood, and contributing to lifesaving medical developments. For example, Marie Curie, who was already an eminent scientist having been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 with her husband for their theory of radioactivity, and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 for her work with radioactive isotopes, invented mobile X-ray cars nicknamed "little Curies," which led to more precise and critical healthcare for the most at-risk patients. Around 150 women were trained to be X-ray operators on the battlefront, including Curie herself.
Suffragette (Subst.) , eine Frau, die sich für das Frauenwahlrecht (Frauenwahlrecht) einsetzt.
Streikposten (v.) , vor einem Arbeitsplatz oder einem anderen Ort stehen, um gegen etwas zu protestieren oder andere davon zu überzeugen, während eines Streiks nicht einzutreten.
Parlamentarier (Subst.) , ein Mitglied des Parlaments (eines politischen Gremiums).
Grill (Subst.) , ein Gitter oder Sieb aus Metallstäben oder -drähten, das vor etwas angebracht wird, um es zu schützen oder um Belüftung oder diskrete Beobachtung zu ermöglichen.
A painting of victims of a chemical attack
Hebammen und Ärzte
Another significant shift amid the Industrial Revolution was in relation to women’s medical care. Advancements in technology and science in the wake of the Enlightenment coalesced into a rethinking of birthing practices and women’s health. Long before factories opened up labor opportunities, the practice of midwifery was one of the accepted ways that women worked outside the home around the world, throughout history. However, increasingly, governments worked to certify and professionalize industries, including medicine. Midwifery was generally a safe option in birth for women, but high maternal death rates led to scholars examining the field scientifically, and men entered the field as trained obstetricians. Many of the men drawn to this field had personally lost loved ones at birth.
In the 1500s, The Rosengarten became the first obstetrical textbook written by a male apothecary. It provided instructions, probably taken from common midwife practices, on how to rotate the baby with pressure on the abdomen to get it into the proper position and introduced new methods and tools to extract the baby. Women at the time were largely illiterate, so how many of the midwives attending women at birth were familiar with the content of the text is hard to say, but the result of this over the next few centuries was tension between the midwives who had made careers in a field available to them and the male doctors who took over in the name of professionalism.
In the battle between midwives and male doctors, it’s wrong to assume that there was one party that unilaterally knew more, performed better, or cared more deeply about the women they were attending. There were undoubtedly good and bad actors in both professions. It is also wrong to assume that a professionalization of the practice meant that midwives were not well-versed and qualified to assist in birthing children, nor that they weren’t using modern and evolving medical instruments for interventions.
Further the “professionalization” of midwifery could really damage female patients. Their male physicians had never been through what they were going through, but far worse, Victorian gendered expectations respected women’s modesty. Sometimes, the doctors wouldn’t even look at the woman’s body during the birthing process. Thus, women died at higher rates under these male doctors, but still the doctors drove female midwives out of their jobs.
The male doctors won the battle for the monopoly on birth. In America by the 1800s, especially among the wealthy and urban, doctors were preferred. No longer did women give birth with their female neighbors there for support and advice. Rather, they gave birth alone with just their mother, sister, or other trusted woman, and a male doctor in attendance. In Philadelphia over a ten-year period, the number of midwives fell from 21 to six. As men were not allowed to look at a naked woman, even during childbirth, male medical students weren’t allowed to watch births, so instead only learned from textbooks until they were active in the field.
Normal, healthy births remained largely successful, but complications in birth are quite common. Babies can get stuck in the birth canal, be poorly positioned, and need an alternative, emergency removal. Throughout history, caesarian sections (today known as c-sections) had been performed in many of these cases. The surgery was reserved for extreme circumstances when it was evident the mother was dying or already dead and there was a chance to save the baby. Having a caesarian section was basically a death sentence for the mother for centuries. In 1814, a report from London announced that only 20-22 known cesarean sections had been attempted in the empire and only nine had succeeded in saving the babies, while just two had succeeded in saving the mother.
The first undisputed and well-documented caesarian section in Ireland took place in 1738 and saved both mother and baby; it was performed by a female midwife, Mary Donally. She was called to help Alice O’Neal, the 30-year-old wife of an Irish farmer who had been in labor for 12 days. Mary cut Alice’s stomach with a razor while an assistant walked a mile to get silk to stitch the mother up. Even though the surgery worked, the medical community in Europe debated the validity of the procedure and few were willing to perform it, even into the 1900s. As the surgery put the mother’s life at extreme risk, much of the debate was about which life was more valuable. In Britain, for example, there was much more support for killing the baby to save the mother.
Life without the cesarean section meant many women continued to die, regardless of their status and access to the best medical care. Most notably, in 1817, Princess Charlotte, George IV's only child, died in childbirth at the young age of 21. Her baby was two weeks late and labor lasted for 50 hours, but no doctors were willing to perform the radical emergency procedure with the princess’s life on the line. In the end, the nine-pound baby was stillborn. Doctors removed the placenta with difficulty, and six hours later, Charlotte died. The obstetrician, Sir Richard Croft, was harassed mercilessly by the masses, and he shot himself a few days later. King George was left without an heir, and the throne passed first to his brother and then to his niece, Queen Victoria.
While it remained a debated and extreme surgical option, this does not mean that practitioners did not still attempt it as a means of survival. A notable case of a successful cesarean section occurred in South Africa in 1826, by Dr. James Barry. Barry was identified as female at birth and raised as a girl by the name of Margaret Ann Bulkley. Barry had been raped as a youth and the resulting child was raised by his mother, but the stretch marks from pregnancy remained for his entire life. When his uncle died, he assumed the name James in his stead and used his new identity as an opportunity for self-betterment, enrolling in medical school in Edinburgh - a school where he would not have gained access as a woman. This does not appear to be a simple matter of education access, but rather, Barry seems to have identified as male, for he remained James for the rest of his life.
Barry had a highly successful and controversial medical career, serving as a physician all over the world and in the Crimean War. While in South Africa, he performed a caesarian section that saved both the mother and child. The grateful mother named her new baby James in his honor. When Barry died years later, it was discovered that he was biologically female or perhaps intersex. How he would have liked to be remembered is sadly unknown, but one can only presume it was as he had lived.
An additional concern of the professionalization of childbirth was that in hospitals, before germs were understood and sterilization common, doctors would often go from surgery to surgery, carrying infections to women in labor. By the 1800s, the maternal death rate reached between two and eight per 100 deliveries, around ten times the rate outside the hospital. In New York, in 1840, 80 percent of women who gave birth in a hospital died.
The field continued to progress in its study of how to preserve the lives of babies and their mothers through various methods of care and surgery. This grew in leaps and bounds through the 20th century, particularly, as more women were able to join the field and concepts of safety surpassed antiquated concepts of enforced modesty. Medical providers - women and men alike - worked to make childbirth safer, faster, and less painful for both mother and child. The discovery of anesthetics like chloroform was not far behind, but like the c-section, many were reluctant to use it in labor. Only after Queen Victoria consented to its use during the birth of her eighth child did it quickly become widely accepted in obstetric practice.
Geburtshelfer (Subst.) , ein Arzt oder Chirurg, der zur Durchführung von Geburten qualifiziert ist.
Apotheker (Subst.) , eine Person, die Arzneimittel und Medikamente zubereitet und verkauft; Pharmazeut.
Geburt mit einer Hebamme
15th century woodcut depicting a cesarean section being performed on a dying mother
Totgeboren (Adj.) , (von einem Säugling) tot geboren.
Dr. James Barry
Intersexualität (n.) , ein Zustand, bei dem Individuen biologische Geschlechtsmerkmale aufweisen, die nicht in die typischen Kategorien männlich oder weiblich passen.
Anästhetikum (Subst.) , eine Substanz, die Unempfindlichkeit gegenüber Schmerzen hervorruft.
Abschluss
Die Industrialisierung verbesserte das Leben von Frauen, möglicherweise sogar stärker als das von Männern. Sie führte zu einer etwas besseren medizinischen Versorgung während der Schwangerschaft, und Frauen wie Männer in der Industrie waren wirtschaftlich besser gestellt als ihre landwirtschaftlichen Kollegen. Dadurch stieg der Lebensstandard erheblich. Trotz niedriger Löhne fanden einige Frauen Wege, ihren Lebensunterhalt zu bestreiten, und einige wenige erlangten sogar beträchtliches Vermögen. Die Industrialisierung stellte auch die patriarchalen Normen in gewisser Weise infrage, da sie die Vorstellung des „männlichen Ernährers“ infrage stellte. Es wurde zunehmend deutlich, dass immer mehr Frauen arbeiten mussten, um ihren Lebensunterhalt zu verdienen. Das Einkommen der Frauen ermöglichte es ihnen außerdem, unabhängige Konsumentinnen zu werden, und mit dieser neuen Rolle ging ihnen ein großer Einfluss auf die Produktion einher.
Es ist wichtig festzuhalten, dass die Industrialisierung auch die westliche imperialistische Expansion befeuerte. Fabriken konnten mehr Waffen produzieren und so militärische Eroberungen in Afrika, Asien, Sibirien, den Pazifikinseln und Westamerika ermöglichen – allesamt begehrte Gebiete wegen ihrer Rohstoffe und Arbeitskräfte. Ob in Führungspositionen oder in der Missionsarbeit, Frauen unterstützten den Imperialismus und kämpften gleichzeitig gegen ihn.
Die Industrialisierung veränderte die globale Zusammensetzung, verschob Machtstrukturen und ermöglichte es dem globalen Norden, seine Systeme anderen aufzuzwingen, darunter auch seine Ansichten über Frauen. Wie beeinflussten Klasse und Region die Auswirkungen der Industrialisierung? Überwogen die Vorteile die Nachteile? Wie würde die Rolle der Frau auf dem Arbeitsmarkt Politik und sozialen Wandel beeinflussen? Würden Frauen Zugang zu als „männlich“ geltenden Branchen erhalten? Wie würde sich die Gesellschaft anpassen, damit Frauen sowohl Erwerbstätige als auch Mütter sein können? Und vielleicht die wichtigste Frage von allen: Was wäre nötig, damit Frauen das Wahlrecht erlangen und dadurch mehr Mitspracherecht in diesen Angelegenheiten erhalten?