1. Nature and purpose of government
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Patriarchy is not the nature of government, but it does seem to be everywhere. The evolution of political and legal systems throughout history was strongly influenced by cultural and social factors, rather than biological differences, which contributed to the prevalence of patriarchy in contemporary political structures.
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Many women lawmakers wore white in honor of the history of women's suffrage to the 2019 State of the Union Address to show solidarity, Wikimedia Commons
Humans throughout history and across the globe have devised a wide variety of political and legal systems. Political systems allow humans to make important decisions which affect groups of people, whether a small community or a large nation. Legal systems allow humans to maintain social order so that life is not chaotic or unpredictable. When political and legal systems are formally written down and applied to a large population like a state or country, this is government. However, it is important to remember that ancient humans long before the creation of presidents and laws still had ways of making decisions and maintaining order. Likewise, even today, these informal political and legal systems still exist within modern democracies and monarchies. Just think of the power of gossip and rumors to ostracize people who don’t conform, an example of an informal legal mechanism. Or the power that celebrities or social media influencers have in shaping public opinion and behavior, an example of informal political power. (McDowell)
Women are half the human population. Yet when we look at governments around the world today, women are absent or in small numbers. At all levels – from city council to the White House – and in all types of governments – from democracies to monarchies to dictatorships – women make up a small proportion of the people to hold positions of power. This is one form of patriarchy. What exactly do we mean by patriarchy, and is it inevitable?
Women are half the human population. Yet when we look at governments around the world today, women are absent or in small numbers. At all levels – from city council to the White House – and in all types of governments – from democracies to monarchies to dictatorships – women make up a small proportion of the people to hold positions of power. This is one form of patriarchy. What exactly do we mean by patriarchy, and is it inevitable?
The Ekklesia of Ancient Greece was where a government assembly of all MALE citizens would meet regardless of class, Wikimedia Commons.
What is Patriarchy?
First, what is the patriarchy? The patriarchy is not men, it’s a social system. Allan G. Johnson, a sociologist and author of The Gender Knot: Unraveling our Patriarchal Legacy argues, “Patriarchy is a kind of society, and a society is more than a collection of people. As such, “patriarchy” doesn’t refer to me or any other man or collection of men, but to a kind of society in which men and women participate.” As such, feminism is an alternative system. Not one where women dominate men, but where hierarchies perpetuated by the patriarchal system are dismantled and men and women are more equal and free. Removed from the boxes that the patriarchy stuffs men into, the majority of men will benefit from such a system, but they need direction.
As women were barred from institutions of higher education in early and mid modern history, most early scholarship on the early origins of human societies was produced by men. This included early fields of history, anthropology, and psychology, and men in all fields made arguments to explain the natural, or biological reasons men seemed to dominate women in society. They claimed that societies used to be matriarchal and used evidence from literature and legends like the mythical Amazons, formidable female warriors residing on the fringes of the known world, the legendary adversaries of powerful Greek heroes. Similar tales of warrior women appear in Ancient Chinese texts. Ancient accounts feature renowned heroes. These stories, depicting male heroes triumphing over all-female societies, have been cited as evidence supporting the idea that male dominance is a natural progression in societal evolution, but the idea that the past was matriarchal is flawed at best.
The myth ignores historical and archaeological evidence and makes unfair assumptions about women based in male bias. The idea of a matriarchal prehistory is presented as a "proven fact" and the "most scientifically plausible account," but these claims are untrue when primary evidence, or a complete lack of evidence are considered. The stereotypes in the matriarchal myth work to make all women seem the same, exaggerate differences between women and men, and limit women to a symbolic, timeless, and archetypal identity.
First, what is the patriarchy? The patriarchy is not men, it’s a social system. Allan G. Johnson, a sociologist and author of The Gender Knot: Unraveling our Patriarchal Legacy argues, “Patriarchy is a kind of society, and a society is more than a collection of people. As such, “patriarchy” doesn’t refer to me or any other man or collection of men, but to a kind of society in which men and women participate.” As such, feminism is an alternative system. Not one where women dominate men, but where hierarchies perpetuated by the patriarchal system are dismantled and men and women are more equal and free. Removed from the boxes that the patriarchy stuffs men into, the majority of men will benefit from such a system, but they need direction.
As women were barred from institutions of higher education in early and mid modern history, most early scholarship on the early origins of human societies was produced by men. This included early fields of history, anthropology, and psychology, and men in all fields made arguments to explain the natural, or biological reasons men seemed to dominate women in society. They claimed that societies used to be matriarchal and used evidence from literature and legends like the mythical Amazons, formidable female warriors residing on the fringes of the known world, the legendary adversaries of powerful Greek heroes. Similar tales of warrior women appear in Ancient Chinese texts. Ancient accounts feature renowned heroes. These stories, depicting male heroes triumphing over all-female societies, have been cited as evidence supporting the idea that male dominance is a natural progression in societal evolution, but the idea that the past was matriarchal is flawed at best.
The myth ignores historical and archaeological evidence and makes unfair assumptions about women based in male bias. The idea of a matriarchal prehistory is presented as a "proven fact" and the "most scientifically plausible account," but these claims are untrue when primary evidence, or a complete lack of evidence are considered. The stereotypes in the matriarchal myth work to make all women seem the same, exaggerate differences between women and men, and limit women to a symbolic, timeless, and archetypal identity.
The Minoans may have had different gender norms and women likely held more positions of power than others of that period, Public Domain
History of Patriarchy:
Defining patriarchy is much easier than determining when and why it first began. A common explanation, such as that offered in a 2022 article by evolutionary anthropologist Ruth Mace, is that when Homo sapiens first emerged around 300,000 years ago, they lived in small nomadic groups of hunters and gatherers, with some gender division of labor but relatively little inequality and power differences between men and women. Then, when humans first began farming about 10,000 years ago, they settled down and started to live in much larger settlements where inequality in terms of wealth and gender relations first emerged. Men came to control access to land, domestic animals like cattle, or crops like wheat, and through this eventually game to hold political power, first in terms of controlling inheritance, marriages, and children, and later in formal authority roles. In this view, patriarchy is not inevitable, but rather a byproduct of living in complex societies (McBroom 2021).
Other people see the common explanation for the origins of patriarchy as a little too simplistic. Archaeologist David Wengrow and anthropologist David Graeber published The Dawn of Everything in 2021, which presents lots of new research showing that even after humans started farming 10,000 years ago, there was a time lag of about 4000 years before we see clear evidence of wealth inequality and patriarchal political formations (Wengrow 2022). Humans throughout history and in different areas of the world have been remarkably inventive in creating different political and legal systems, some of which women were much more likely to hold positions of power and share in decision making and rule enforcement. In this view, patriarchy is not inevitable, even after humans start living in complex societies.
So, if patriarchy is not inevitable, why is it still so common in the governments that we are familiar with from the news and our history textbooks? People sometimes assume there are biological differences between men and women, such as our brain structures or our hormone levels, that make men naturally more inclined to lead. Or perhaps men hold political power because of some evolutionary heritage, where women were tied down by childbirth and raising children and men were free to week power and influence. Agustín Fuentes in a 2022 book reviews all the evidence, and shows that biological differences between men and women are small, and not necessarily associated with qualities that have much to do with politics. As he says in a 2022 article:
“The belief that men are by nature aggressive and belligerent but protectors—like the Roman god of war, Mars—and women are emotive, beautiful, vain, and fertile—like the goddess of love, Venus—is common. Such a belief is often rooted in stories about human evolution and offered as an explanation of why men and women have different jobs, different capacities, and different participation in politics and industry. This is a dangerous myth.”
In the end, scholars from a wide range of disciplines have shown that cultural and social factors, instead of biological ones, are the best explanation for why patriarchy is so common in our contemporary political systems. In cultures where patriarchy has developed, humans come to see men as “natural” leaders and politicians, and it is very hard for people to escape that worldview, perpetuating this style of government.
Defining patriarchy is much easier than determining when and why it first began. A common explanation, such as that offered in a 2022 article by evolutionary anthropologist Ruth Mace, is that when Homo sapiens first emerged around 300,000 years ago, they lived in small nomadic groups of hunters and gatherers, with some gender division of labor but relatively little inequality and power differences between men and women. Then, when humans first began farming about 10,000 years ago, they settled down and started to live in much larger settlements where inequality in terms of wealth and gender relations first emerged. Men came to control access to land, domestic animals like cattle, or crops like wheat, and through this eventually game to hold political power, first in terms of controlling inheritance, marriages, and children, and later in formal authority roles. In this view, patriarchy is not inevitable, but rather a byproduct of living in complex societies (McBroom 2021).
Other people see the common explanation for the origins of patriarchy as a little too simplistic. Archaeologist David Wengrow and anthropologist David Graeber published The Dawn of Everything in 2021, which presents lots of new research showing that even after humans started farming 10,000 years ago, there was a time lag of about 4000 years before we see clear evidence of wealth inequality and patriarchal political formations (Wengrow 2022). Humans throughout history and in different areas of the world have been remarkably inventive in creating different political and legal systems, some of which women were much more likely to hold positions of power and share in decision making and rule enforcement. In this view, patriarchy is not inevitable, even after humans start living in complex societies.
So, if patriarchy is not inevitable, why is it still so common in the governments that we are familiar with from the news and our history textbooks? People sometimes assume there are biological differences between men and women, such as our brain structures or our hormone levels, that make men naturally more inclined to lead. Or perhaps men hold political power because of some evolutionary heritage, where women were tied down by childbirth and raising children and men were free to week power and influence. Agustín Fuentes in a 2022 book reviews all the evidence, and shows that biological differences between men and women are small, and not necessarily associated with qualities that have much to do with politics. As he says in a 2022 article:
“The belief that men are by nature aggressive and belligerent but protectors—like the Roman god of war, Mars—and women are emotive, beautiful, vain, and fertile—like the goddess of love, Venus—is common. Such a belief is often rooted in stories about human evolution and offered as an explanation of why men and women have different jobs, different capacities, and different participation in politics and industry. This is a dangerous myth.”
In the end, scholars from a wide range of disciplines have shown that cultural and social factors, instead of biological ones, are the best explanation for why patriarchy is so common in our contemporary political systems. In cultures where patriarchy has developed, humans come to see men as “natural” leaders and politicians, and it is very hard for people to escape that worldview, perpetuating this style of government.
Draw your own conclusions
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Learn how to teach with inquiry.
Many of these lesson plans were sponsored in part by the Library of Congress Teaching with Primary Sources Eastern Region Program, coordinated by Waynesburg University, the History and Social Studies Education Faculty at Plymouth State University, and the Patrons of the Remedial Herstory Project. |
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Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- The National Women's History Museum has lesson plans on women's history.
- The Guilder Lehrman Institute for American History has lesson plans on women's history.
- The NY Historical Society has articles and classroom activities for teaching women's history.
- Unladylike 2020, in partnership with PBS, has primary sources to explore with students and outstanding videos on women from the Progressive era.
- The Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media has produced recommendations for teaching women's history with primary sources and provided a collection of sources for world history. Check them out!
- The Stanford History Education Group has a number of lesson plans about women in US History.
Period Specific Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- C3 Teachers: This inquiry leads students through an investigation of the LGBTQ+ movement, primarily driven by the history of the movement through various accounts and perspectives. The compelling question—What makes a movement successful?—does not address whether or not the movement was successful, but instead assesses the components of a movement and whether the movement is in a period of growth or has already peaked. Although the focus of this inquiry is on the LGBTQ+ movement, parallels can be drawn to other social movements in history with respect to organization, activism, and overall execution, including the Civil Rights Movement or the women’s suffrage and rights movements. Specifically, this inquiry looks at four different aspects that can potentially shape a movement in its foundation as well as its rise, namely public reaction, government leaders and policies, Supreme Court cases, and personal experiences. Throughout the inquiry, students will examine each individual aspect independently, evaluating the merits, strengths, and significance of each provided source in the “Movement Analysis Organization Chart,” but the summative task will require a compilation and synthesis of the sources in this investigation in order to form an argument to address the compelling question.
- Voices of Democracy: In the speech Clinton positioned the United States as the moral authority in monitoring and enforcing sanctions for global human trafficking, while at the same time reiterating the importance of international cooperation and partnerships.
- Clio: In 1972, feminists in Washington, D.C. founded the nation’s first rape crisis center. Other centers were soon established across the country. In 1994, Congress passed the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). The act was created in response to the nation-wide, grassroots work of activists concerned with domestic violence, sexual assault, date rape, and stalking. This lesson introduces students to the history of efforts to stop violence against women.
- National Women’s History Museum: How has the Supreme Court shaped the lives of American women between 1908-2005? Students will analyze one of four Supreme Court cases that relate to the constitutional rights of women decided between 1908-2005. Students will become mini-experts on one Supreme Court cases and they will be exposed to the content, themes, and questions from the other three cases via peer to peer instruction of their classmates. The goal of this lesson is to introduce students to a broad range of Supreme Court cases that have impacted American women and to have them develop a working knowledge and expertise of at least one case by using primary sources such as the case ruling and secondary sources that will help students to understand the context.
- National History Day: Patsy Takemoto Mink (1927-2002) was born in Hawaii. She studied in Pennsylvania and Nebraska before moving back to Hawaii to earn her undergraduate degree and eventually received her J.D. from the University of Chicago in 1951. She moved back to Hawaii with her husband, John Francis Mink, and founded the Oahu Young Democrats in 1954. In the 1950s, Mink served as both a member of the territorial house of representatives and Hawaii Senate. After Hawaii achieved statehood in 1959, Mink unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. House of Representatives. Mink campaigned for the second representative seat in 1964 and won, making her the first woman of color and first Asian American woman to be elected to Congress. Mink is best known for her support of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society legislation, as well as her advocacy for women’s issues and equal rights. Mink worked tirelessly to earn support for the critical Title IX Amendment from her comprehensive education bill called Women’s Education Equity Act. Mink took a break from Congress after an unsuccessful bid for the Senate, but returned to Congress in 1990 and served until her death in September 2002.
- C3 Teachers: This twelfth grade annotated inquiry leads students through an investigation of a hotly debated issue in the United States: the gender wage gap. The compelling question “What should we do about the gender wage gap?” asks students to grapple not only with how to quantify and interpret the gap but also to consider ways of addressing the problem. Throughout the inquiry, students consider the degree to which economic inequality reflects social, political, or economic injustices or whether it simply reflects individual choices and the role the government should play in decreasing income inequality. Although this inquiry is rooted in a question about economics, no social issue is fully understood without examining a range of economic, historical, geographic, and political concepts in order to craft a full-bodied, evidence-based argument. This inquiry looks at the complexity of the gender wage gap issue through all four social studies disciplines. Students examine the structural factors that influence women’s choices as well as historical (e.g., Equal Pay Act of 1963) and pending (e.g., Paycheck Fairness Act) legislative efforts. Ultimately, students must find a way to measure the gender wage gap, determine if it is an issue worth addressing, and, if so, how to best address it, including private and public sector solutions.
Archives of Women's Political Communication at Iowa State University
For a sea of political speeches delivered by women, look no further than the archives at Iowa State. Their website states:
"The Archives of Women's Political Communication was launched in 2007 by the Carrie Chapman Catt Center for Women and Politics at Iowa State University. The goal of the archives is to showcase and preserve women’s political discourse and promote lifelong learning of women in political leadership throughout the world.
The archives is designed to serve as a resource for faculty teaching courses and conducting research in political science, speech communication, journalism, women's studies, sociology, history and other fields. It also serves as a resource for students and members of the public interested in women's political communication. An internal review board helps oversee and review the collection of speeches."
For a sea of political speeches delivered by women, look no further than the archives at Iowa State. Their website states:
"The Archives of Women's Political Communication was launched in 2007 by the Carrie Chapman Catt Center for Women and Politics at Iowa State University. The goal of the archives is to showcase and preserve women’s political discourse and promote lifelong learning of women in political leadership throughout the world.
The archives is designed to serve as a resource for faculty teaching courses and conducting research in political science, speech communication, journalism, women's studies, sociology, history and other fields. It also serves as a resource for students and members of the public interested in women's political communication. An internal review board helps oversee and review the collection of speeches."
Remedial Herstory Editors. "1. NATURE AND PURPOSE." The Remedial Herstory Project. January 1, 2024. www.remedialherstory.com.
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Consulting TeamKelsie Brook Eckert, Project Director
Coordinator of Social Studies Ed. at Plymouth State University Dr. Jason Charette Associate Professor of Practice in Political Science at Plymouth State University Dr. Laura Tilghman Associate Professor and Program Coordinator for Anthropology and Sociology at Plymouth State University |
Nonfiction's on Government
Women and Politics is a comprehensive examination of women's use of politics in pursuit of gender equality. How can demands for gender equality be reconciled with sex differences?
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Caroline Criado Perez investigates this shocking root cause of gender inequality in Invisible Women. Criado Perez unearths a dangerous pattern in data and its consequences on women’s lives.
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Women and Politics in a Global World is the only text that offers a cross-national and comparative examination of the impact of women on politics--and the impact of politics on women.
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Hillary Rodham Clinton reveals what she was thinking and feeling during one of the most controversial and unpredictable presidential elections in history.
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When Women Win delivers stories of some of the toughest political contests of the past three decades, including the historic victory of Barbara Mikulski as the first Democratic woman elected to the Senate in her own right and Elizabeth Warren’s dramatic Senate win. When Women Win is both a page-turning political drama and an important look at the effects of women’s engagement in politics.
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In Women in Politics, author and healthcare leader Mary Chung Hayashi offers a riveting exploration of the strides made by women in government. This essential, contemporary analysis bridges the gap between past and present, blending Mary's personal journey as an Asian American immigrant and former California State Assembly member with the inspiring stories of trailblazing women in political leadership.
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How to teach with Films:
Remember, teachers want the student to be the historian. What do historians do when they watch films?
- Before they watch, ask students to research the director and producers. These are the source of the information. How will their background and experience likely bias this film?
- Also, ask students to consider the context the film was created in. The film may be about history, but it was made recently. What was going on the year the film was made that could bias the film? In particular, how do you think the gains of feminism will impact the portrayal of the female characters?
- As they watch, ask students to research the historical accuracy of the film. What do online sources say about what the film gets right or wrong?
- Afterward, ask students to describe how the female characters were portrayed and what lessons they got from the film.
- Then, ask students to evaluate this film as a learning tool. Was it helpful to better understand this topic? Did the historical inaccuracies make it unhelpful? Make it clear any informed opinion is valid.
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Zero Dark Thirty (2012)
A chronicle of the decade-long hunt for al-Qaeda terrorist leader Osama bin Laden after the September 2001 attacks, and his death at the hands of the Navy S.E.A.L.s Team 6 in May 2011. IMDB In Her Hands (2022)
At 26, Zarifa Ghafari became one of Afghanistan's first female mayors and the youngest to ever hold the position. Filmed over two turbulent years, the film documents her personal battle for survival as her country unravels. IMDB |
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Bibliography
Fuentes, Agustín. 2022. Busting myths about sex and gender. https://www.sapiens.org/biology/busting-myths-about-sex-and-gender/.
Fuentes, Agustín. 2022. Race, monogamy, and other lies they told you: Busting myths about human nature. University of California Press.
Graeber, David, & Wengrow, David. 2021. The dawn of everything: A new history of humanity. Penguin UK.
Mace, Ruth. 2022. How did the patriarchy start – and will evolution get rid of it? https://theconversation.com/how-did-the-patriarchy-start-and-will-evolution-get-rid-of-it-189648.
McBroom, Patricia. 2021. The Dirt on Patriarchy. https://patriciamcbroom.medium.com/the-dirt-on-patriarchy-96033ca80a62.
McDowell, Paul. 2020. Political Anthropology: a cross-cultural comparison. https://pressbooks.pub/perspectives/chapter/political-anthropology-a-cross-cultural-comparison/.
Wengrow, David. 2022. TED Talk: A New Understanding of Human History and the Roots of Inequality. https://youtu.be/8SJi0sHrEI4?si=25VJsk2NgvAohToF.
Fuentes, Agustín. 2022. Race, monogamy, and other lies they told you: Busting myths about human nature. University of California Press.
Graeber, David, & Wengrow, David. 2021. The dawn of everything: A new history of humanity. Penguin UK.
Mace, Ruth. 2022. How did the patriarchy start – and will evolution get rid of it? https://theconversation.com/how-did-the-patriarchy-start-and-will-evolution-get-rid-of-it-189648.
McBroom, Patricia. 2021. The Dirt on Patriarchy. https://patriciamcbroom.medium.com/the-dirt-on-patriarchy-96033ca80a62.
McDowell, Paul. 2020. Political Anthropology: a cross-cultural comparison. https://pressbooks.pub/perspectives/chapter/political-anthropology-a-cross-cultural-comparison/.
Wengrow, David. 2022. TED Talk: A New Understanding of Human History and the Roots of Inequality. https://youtu.be/8SJi0sHrEI4?si=25VJsk2NgvAohToF.