4. Foreign Trade
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Foreign/international trade looks at the buying and selling of goods, services, and businesses across country borders and has led to the rise of the global economy. Trade at the international level is heavily linked to geopolitical relations and global events in general. Often, trade is framed by the idea of the division of labor in that economic specialization is imperative to the success of a global market.
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Foreign Trade:
Foreign/international trade looks at the buying and selling of goods, services, and businesses across country borders and has led to the rise of the global economy. Trade at the international level is heavily linked to geopolitical relations and global events in general. Often, trade is framed by the idea of the division of labor in that economic specialization is imperative to the success of a global market.
Foreign/international trade looks at the buying and selling of goods, services, and businesses across country borders and has led to the rise of the global economy. Trade at the international level is heavily linked to geopolitical relations and global events in general. Often, trade is framed by the idea of the division of labor in that economic specialization is imperative to the success of a global market.
Cargo Ship, Public Domain
The Importance of Global Trade for Local Women
In general, engaging in trade has proven to be extremely positive for the development, maintenance, and growth of economies in all parts of the world and is known to increase productivity, wages, employment opportunities, and resources for people in many demographics. International trade allows countries a place on the global stage and expands the types of work that citizens can engage in. Although these patterns are true for many people, women have especially seen economic gains as countries decide to begin or increase their foreign trade and relations.
Countries that take part in foreign trade are shown to be more likely to employ women in formal jobs and areas of work. Informal work, or work in the ‘gray economy,’ is often done without protections and with significant less compensation. Women are disproportionately affected by these practices, as they make up 95% of informal workers in South Asia, 89% in sub-Saharan Africa, and 59% in Latin America and the Caribbean. Informal work is connected to much poorer health outcomes, both physically and mentally, but, in many circumstances, is the only option for work outside the home available to many people around the world. This type of work can be categorized by jobs as street vendors, domestic workers, subsistence farmers, garment industry workers, where women make up 80% of employees, and more.
In sectors that are highly integrated, we see women working informally at a rate of 13%, but this number greatly increases to 20% when examining less-integrated sectors. Moreover, for men, these percentages are 5% and 9.5% respectively, showing that this trend affects women at a much greater rate than it does men. Therefore, the rise of investment in global trade is directly related to the rise in formal jobs for women, providing a safer avenue to economic success for individuals.
Additionally, companies and firms that export also hire women at a much higher rate than those which do not export: women make up 33% of the workforce in the former and only 24% in the latter in developing countries. Not only are more women hired in companies that are integrated in the global economy, but they are also compensated more, with women’s wages being 2.5% higher when they are employed by a business that exports globally. Finally, when countries double their manufacturing exports, women tend to increase their share of total manufacturing wages by 24-30%.
For all of these reasons, greater trade boosts an abundance of economic opportunities for women throughout a variety of sectors. It also leads to women’s ability to take back consumer power in a more expansive way.
In general, engaging in trade has proven to be extremely positive for the development, maintenance, and growth of economies in all parts of the world and is known to increase productivity, wages, employment opportunities, and resources for people in many demographics. International trade allows countries a place on the global stage and expands the types of work that citizens can engage in. Although these patterns are true for many people, women have especially seen economic gains as countries decide to begin or increase their foreign trade and relations.
Countries that take part in foreign trade are shown to be more likely to employ women in formal jobs and areas of work. Informal work, or work in the ‘gray economy,’ is often done without protections and with significant less compensation. Women are disproportionately affected by these practices, as they make up 95% of informal workers in South Asia, 89% in sub-Saharan Africa, and 59% in Latin America and the Caribbean. Informal work is connected to much poorer health outcomes, both physically and mentally, but, in many circumstances, is the only option for work outside the home available to many people around the world. This type of work can be categorized by jobs as street vendors, domestic workers, subsistence farmers, garment industry workers, where women make up 80% of employees, and more.
In sectors that are highly integrated, we see women working informally at a rate of 13%, but this number greatly increases to 20% when examining less-integrated sectors. Moreover, for men, these percentages are 5% and 9.5% respectively, showing that this trend affects women at a much greater rate than it does men. Therefore, the rise of investment in global trade is directly related to the rise in formal jobs for women, providing a safer avenue to economic success for individuals.
Additionally, companies and firms that export also hire women at a much higher rate than those which do not export: women make up 33% of the workforce in the former and only 24% in the latter in developing countries. Not only are more women hired in companies that are integrated in the global economy, but they are also compensated more, with women’s wages being 2.5% higher when they are employed by a business that exports globally. Finally, when countries double their manufacturing exports, women tend to increase their share of total manufacturing wages by 24-30%.
For all of these reasons, greater trade boosts an abundance of economic opportunities for women throughout a variety of sectors. It also leads to women’s ability to take back consumer power in a more expansive way.
Public Domain
Trade for Women Business Owners
Women-owned businesses and firms that take on a global trade approach are in scarcity compared to male-owned. In developing countries, men own 90% of manufacturers and 88% of service firms, and, across all countries, only 15% of businesses that have stakes in global trade are run by women. In general, firms that are owned by women are far less likely to engage in trade and to operate within global value chains (GVCs), the economic practice where different parts of the exporting process are located in different parts of the world.
There are many reasons why women-owned firms tend to be less likely to export. Firstly, the industries that these companies primarily reside in normally are associated with higher trade costs. Second, women-owned businesses are in less abundance than men-owned businesses in the first place, but, because of additional barriers that are connected to having a company that participates on the global scale of trade, women are less likely to be able to access the resources to overcome those obstacles. This phenomenon mostly rises from systemic gender discrimination on the basis of education, financial independence, and domestic duties. For example, in 2022, only 2% of venture capital across the world was given to women-owned businesses.
Women-owned businesses and firms that take on a global trade approach are in scarcity compared to male-owned. In developing countries, men own 90% of manufacturers and 88% of service firms, and, across all countries, only 15% of businesses that have stakes in global trade are run by women. In general, firms that are owned by women are far less likely to engage in trade and to operate within global value chains (GVCs), the economic practice where different parts of the exporting process are located in different parts of the world.
There are many reasons why women-owned firms tend to be less likely to export. Firstly, the industries that these companies primarily reside in normally are associated with higher trade costs. Second, women-owned businesses are in less abundance than men-owned businesses in the first place, but, because of additional barriers that are connected to having a company that participates on the global scale of trade, women are less likely to be able to access the resources to overcome those obstacles. This phenomenon mostly rises from systemic gender discrimination on the basis of education, financial independence, and domestic duties. For example, in 2022, only 2% of venture capital across the world was given to women-owned businesses.
Service Workers, Public Domain
The Rise of the Service Sector
Within the 21st century, the rise of the service sector within the international economy has been staggering. The service sector does not deal with tangible goods, but rather intangible aspects of trading, like training, consulting, and recreation. In fact, when looking at value added to the economy, the service sector is actually the largest economic sector in the world.
In 2000, 46% of all workers in the service industry were women, but by 2020, this number had jumped to 58%. The number of women working in this sector continue to increase, and because modern global economic activity is so tied to the service sector, increasing trade in this sector also increases jobs and opportunities for women at a substantial rate.
The service sector, in terms of global trade, faces many extra barriers than the exportation of goods and tangible items. In general, trade costs tend to be much higher for the service industry, and time and mobility barriers also look different because of the intangible nature of services. For example, it is much easier to quantify the exportation of tangible goods, and it is also, in many ways, more simple to export these goods across the world. The international exportation of services is made difficult by constraints of how they can be marketed and given to consumers. With this being said, because the service sector is such a large employer of women, the barriers that exist disproportionately affect women and their ability to start or work for service-based companies at an international level.
Within the 21st century, the rise of the service sector within the international economy has been staggering. The service sector does not deal with tangible goods, but rather intangible aspects of trading, like training, consulting, and recreation. In fact, when looking at value added to the economy, the service sector is actually the largest economic sector in the world.
In 2000, 46% of all workers in the service industry were women, but by 2020, this number had jumped to 58%. The number of women working in this sector continue to increase, and because modern global economic activity is so tied to the service sector, increasing trade in this sector also increases jobs and opportunities for women at a substantial rate.
The service sector, in terms of global trade, faces many extra barriers than the exportation of goods and tangible items. In general, trade costs tend to be much higher for the service industry, and time and mobility barriers also look different because of the intangible nature of services. For example, it is much easier to quantify the exportation of tangible goods, and it is also, in many ways, more simple to export these goods across the world. The international exportation of services is made difficult by constraints of how they can be marketed and given to consumers. With this being said, because the service sector is such a large employer of women, the barriers that exist disproportionately affect women and their ability to start or work for service-based companies at an international level.
Pink Tax, Healthline
The Pink Tariff and Connection to Consumer Power
Sexism and gender discrimination, like it has in most institutions, has found a way to permeate the world of trade policy, specifically in relation to the way tariffs and taxes are applied to various industries. The connection between gender and these types of policies have been named the Pink Tariff, or the Pink Tax, because of the gendered way these monetary systems affect women workers and consumers.
Economic sectors that usually have a higher percentage of women workers over men workers see higher tariffs for trading; these sectors include food & beverages and textiles & apparel. These types of restrictions have negative implications in all aspects of the supply chain. Firstly, high tariffs inherently lead to less competition, since fewer businesses are willing to pay more money in order to export. Less competition in this sense also leads to less hiring competition, which, in this case, directly affects jobs that are normally taken up by women.
However, tariffs also have resounding effects on taxes, especially the taxes that consumers directly see and experience. The Pink Tax refers to gender-based pricing for goods that are targeted to women. Not only does this apply to industries that are affected by the Pink Tariff as a whole, but also to individual products within those industries. Common examples include deodorant, shampoo, and razors marketed toward women as having a much higher price tag than those same items with the same quality marketed toward men. In fact, women in the United States tend to pay an overall 8% more than men for apparel. While the federal government sets the tariff schedules in the United States, there is currently no law that prohibits gender discrimination in the pricing of products for consumers.
As shown, working in business that conducts foreign trade is beneficial to women in innumerable ways, yet the creation of those companies which employ the most women is sometimes blocked by fiscal policy like the Pink Tariff. These policies trickle down to not only affect the greater economy of the region but also individuals and their families, especially women.
Sexism and gender discrimination, like it has in most institutions, has found a way to permeate the world of trade policy, specifically in relation to the way tariffs and taxes are applied to various industries. The connection between gender and these types of policies have been named the Pink Tariff, or the Pink Tax, because of the gendered way these monetary systems affect women workers and consumers.
Economic sectors that usually have a higher percentage of women workers over men workers see higher tariffs for trading; these sectors include food & beverages and textiles & apparel. These types of restrictions have negative implications in all aspects of the supply chain. Firstly, high tariffs inherently lead to less competition, since fewer businesses are willing to pay more money in order to export. Less competition in this sense also leads to less hiring competition, which, in this case, directly affects jobs that are normally taken up by women.
However, tariffs also have resounding effects on taxes, especially the taxes that consumers directly see and experience. The Pink Tax refers to gender-based pricing for goods that are targeted to women. Not only does this apply to industries that are affected by the Pink Tariff as a whole, but also to individual products within those industries. Common examples include deodorant, shampoo, and razors marketed toward women as having a much higher price tag than those same items with the same quality marketed toward men. In fact, women in the United States tend to pay an overall 8% more than men for apparel. While the federal government sets the tariff schedules in the United States, there is currently no law that prohibits gender discrimination in the pricing of products for consumers.
As shown, working in business that conducts foreign trade is beneficial to women in innumerable ways, yet the creation of those companies which employ the most women is sometimes blocked by fiscal policy like the Pink Tariff. These policies trickle down to not only affect the greater economy of the region but also individuals and their families, especially women.
What is Needed
Although new and improved trade policies are needed in order to level the playing field for women to access trading opportunities, there are a variety of other types of systemic change that needs to be actualized in order to remove barriers in a more substantial way. Most importantly, access to education and financial services such as bank accounts and loans is imperative as women seek to expand their weight in the trading economy.
However, little research has been done into the world of global trade and its effects on women as an independent demographic, so a call for disaggregated data based on gender in this field of research has been gaining traction. Illuminating current inequities is often the first step to creating change.
Although new and improved trade policies are needed in order to level the playing field for women to access trading opportunities, there are a variety of other types of systemic change that needs to be actualized in order to remove barriers in a more substantial way. Most importantly, access to education and financial services such as bank accounts and loans is imperative as women seek to expand their weight in the trading economy.
However, little research has been done into the world of global trade and its effects on women as an independent demographic, so a call for disaggregated data based on gender in this field of research has been gaining traction. Illuminating current inequities is often the first step to creating change.
Draw your own conclusions
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Learn how to teach with inquiry.
Many of these lesson plans were sponsored in part by the Library of Congress Teaching with Primary Sources Eastern Region Program, coordinated by Waynesburg University, the History and Social Studies Education Faculty at Plymouth State University, and the Patrons of the Remedial Herstory Project. |
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Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- The National Women's History Museum has lesson plans on women's history.
- The Guilder Lehrman Institute for American History has lesson plans on women's history.
- The NY Historical Society has articles and classroom activities for teaching women's history.
- Unladylike 2020, in partnership with PBS, has primary sources to explore with students and outstanding videos on women from the Progressive era.
- The Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media has produced recommendations for teaching women's history with primary sources and provided a collection of sources for world history. Check them out!
- The Stanford History Education Group has a number of lesson plans about women in US History.
Period Specific Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- C3 Teachers: This inquiry leads students through an investigation of the LGBTQ+ movement, primarily driven by the history of the movement through various accounts and perspectives. The compelling question—What makes a movement successful?—does not address whether or not the movement was successful, but instead assesses the components of a movement and whether the movement is in a period of growth or has already peaked. Although the focus of this inquiry is on the LGBTQ+ movement, parallels can be drawn to other social movements in history with respect to organization, activism, and overall execution, including the Civil Rights Movement or the women’s suffrage and rights movements. Specifically, this inquiry looks at four different aspects that can potentially shape a movement in its foundation as well as its rise, namely public reaction, government leaders and policies, Supreme Court cases, and personal experiences. Throughout the inquiry, students will examine each individual aspect independently, evaluating the merits, strengths, and significance of each provided source in the “Movement Analysis Organization Chart,” but the summative task will require a compilation and synthesis of the sources in this investigation in order to form an argument to address the compelling question.
- Voices of Democracy: In the speech Clinton positioned the United States as the moral authority in monitoring and enforcing sanctions for global human trafficking, while at the same time reiterating the importance of international cooperation and partnerships.
- Clio: In 1972, feminists in Washington, D.C. founded the nation’s first rape crisis center. Other centers were soon established across the country. In 1994, Congress passed the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). The act was created in response to the nation-wide, grassroots work of activists concerned with domestic violence, sexual assault, date rape, and stalking. This lesson introduces students to the history of efforts to stop violence against women.
- National Women’s History Museum: How has the Supreme Court shaped the lives of American women between 1908-2005? Students will analyze one of four Supreme Court cases that relate to the constitutional rights of women decided between 1908-2005. Students will become mini-experts on one Supreme Court cases and they will be exposed to the content, themes, and questions from the other three cases via peer to peer instruction of their classmates. The goal of this lesson is to introduce students to a broad range of Supreme Court cases that have impacted American women and to have them develop a working knowledge and expertise of at least one case by using primary sources such as the case ruling and secondary sources that will help students to understand the context.
- National History Day: Patsy Takemoto Mink (1927-2002) was born in Hawaii. She studied in Pennsylvania and Nebraska before moving back to Hawaii to earn her undergraduate degree and eventually received her J.D. from the University of Chicago in 1951. She moved back to Hawaii with her husband, John Francis Mink, and founded the Oahu Young Democrats in 1954. In the 1950s, Mink served as both a member of the territorial house of representatives and Hawaii Senate. After Hawaii achieved statehood in 1959, Mink unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. House of Representatives. Mink campaigned for the second representative seat in 1964 and won, making her the first woman of color and first Asian American woman to be elected to Congress. Mink is best known for her support of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society legislation, as well as her advocacy for women’s issues and equal rights. Mink worked tirelessly to earn support for the critical Title IX Amendment from her comprehensive education bill called Women’s Education Equity Act. Mink took a break from Congress after an unsuccessful bid for the Senate, but returned to Congress in 1990 and served until her death in September 2002.
- C3 Teachers: This twelfth grade annotated inquiry leads students through an investigation of a hotly debated issue in the United States: the gender wage gap. The compelling question “What should we do about the gender wage gap?” asks students to grapple not only with how to quantify and interpret the gap but also to consider ways of addressing the problem. Throughout the inquiry, students consider the degree to which economic inequality reflects social, political, or economic injustices or whether it simply reflects individual choices and the role the government should play in decreasing income inequality. Although this inquiry is rooted in a question about economics, no social issue is fully understood without examining a range of economic, historical, geographic, and political concepts in order to craft a full-bodied, evidence-based argument. This inquiry looks at the complexity of the gender wage gap issue through all four social studies disciplines. Students examine the structural factors that influence women’s choices as well as historical (e.g., Equal Pay Act of 1963) and pending (e.g., Paycheck Fairness Act) legislative efforts. Ultimately, students must find a way to measure the gender wage gap, determine if it is an issue worth addressing, and, if so, how to best address it, including private and public sector solutions.
UN Women
After the formation of the United Nations in 1945, UN Women was created. Their about page states:
"UN Women is the United Nations entity dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women. A global champion for women and girls, UN Women was established to accelerate progress on meeting their needs worldwide.
UN Women supports UN Member States as they set global standards for achieving gender equality, and works with governments and civil society to design laws, policies, programmes and services needed to ensure that the standards are effectively implemented and truly benefit women and girls worldwide. It works globally to make the vision of the Sustainable Development Goals a reality for women and girls and stands behind women’s equal participation in all aspects of life, focusing on four strategic priorities:
This website is a great resource for understanding international relations as they relate to women and gender issues.
After the formation of the United Nations in 1945, UN Women was created. Their about page states:
"UN Women is the United Nations entity dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women. A global champion for women and girls, UN Women was established to accelerate progress on meeting their needs worldwide.
UN Women supports UN Member States as they set global standards for achieving gender equality, and works with governments and civil society to design laws, policies, programmes and services needed to ensure that the standards are effectively implemented and truly benefit women and girls worldwide. It works globally to make the vision of the Sustainable Development Goals a reality for women and girls and stands behind women’s equal participation in all aspects of life, focusing on four strategic priorities:
- Women lead, participate in and benefit equally from governance systems
- Women have income security, decent work and economic autonomy
- All women and girls live a life free from all forms of violence
- Women and girls contribute to and have greater influence in building sustainable peace and resilience, and benefit equally from the prevention of natural disasters and conflicts and humanitarian action"
This website is a great resource for understanding international relations as they relate to women and gender issues.
Remedial Herstory Editors. "4. FOREIGN TRADE." The Remedial Herstory Project. January 1, 2024. www.remedialherstory.com.
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Consulting TeamKelsie Brook Eckert, Project Director
Coordinator of Social Studies Ed. at Plymouth State University Dr. Linda Upham-Bornstein Teaching Lecturer at Plymouth State University Taylor Maine Intern with the Remedial Herstory Project |
EditorsDr. Barbara Tischler
Dr. Alicia Gutierrez-Romine |
Nonfiction's on Economics
In Fairy Play, Rodsky interviewed more than five hundred men and women from all walks of life to figure out what the invisible work in a family actually entails and how to get it all done efficiently.
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In The Double X Economy, Scott argues on the strength of hard data and on-the-ground experience that removing those barriers to women’s success is a win for everyone, regardless of gender.
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In this short, accessible primer, Bell Hooks explores the nature of feminism and its positive promise to eliminate sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression.
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In Smart Women Love Money, Finn paves the way forward by showing you that the power of investing is the last frontier of feminism. Finn shares five simple and proven strategies for a woman at any stage of her life, whether starting a career, home raising children, or heading up a major corporation.
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In Financial Feminist, Dunlap distills the principles of her shame- and judgment-free approach to paying off debt, figuring out your value categories to spend mindfully, saving money without monk-like deprivation, and investing in order to spend your retirement tanning in Tulum.
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Caroline Criado Perez investigates this shocking root cause of gender inequality in Invisible Women. Examining the home, the workplace, the public square, the doctor’s office, and more, Criado Perez unearths a dangerous pattern in data and its consequences on women’s lives.
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Written in Hooks's characteristic direct style, Feminist Theory embodies the hope that feminists can find a common language to spread the word and create a mass, global feminist movement.
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How to teach with Films:
Remember, teachers want the student to be the historian. What do historians do when they watch films?
- Before they watch, ask students to research the director and producers. These are the source of the information. How will their background and experience likely bias this film?
- Also, ask students to consider the context the film was created in. The film may be about history, but it was made recently. What was going on the year the film was made that could bias the film? In particular, how do you think the gains of feminism will impact the portrayal of the female characters?
- As they watch, ask students to research the historical accuracy of the film. What do online sources say about what the film gets right or wrong?
- Afterward, ask students to describe how the female characters were portrayed and what lessons they got from the film.
- Then, ask students to evaluate this film as a learning tool. Was it helpful to better understand this topic? Did the historical inaccuracies make it unhelpful? Make it clear any informed opinion is valid.
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Fair Play (2022)
Follows three families on their journey to better balance their home life style. They are fighting problems that affect millions of couples and families across the country and even the globe. IMDB |
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Bibliography
Aronssoon, Emma, “The health consequences of informal employment among female workers and their
children: a systematic review,” BioMed Central 19, no. 59 (2023): 1-12,
https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12992-023-00958-1#citeas.
CARE Staff, “Raising their voices for change: women garment workers speak up,” CARE, last modified
children: a systematic review,” BioMed Central 19, no. 59 (2023): 1-12, https://www.care.org/
news-and-stories/ideas/raising-their-voices-for-change-women-garment-workers-speak-up/.
Jones, Sally, “Why the gender gap in international trade needs to close faster,” Ernst & Young, last
modified May 16, 2023, https://www.ey.com/en_gl/global-trade/why-the-gender-gap
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Hatch, Miranda, “Is Trade Sexist? How “Pink” Tariff Policies’ Harmful Effects Can Be Curtailed
Through Litigation and Legislation,” BYU Law Review 47, no. 2 (2022): 651-684,
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res_e/booksp_e/women_trade_pub2807_e.pdf.
children: a systematic review,” BioMed Central 19, no. 59 (2023): 1-12,
https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12992-023-00958-1#citeas.
CARE Staff, “Raising their voices for change: women garment workers speak up,” CARE, last modified
children: a systematic review,” BioMed Central 19, no. 59 (2023): 1-12, https://www.care.org/
news-and-stories/ideas/raising-their-voices-for-change-women-garment-workers-speak-up/.
Jones, Sally, “Why the gender gap in international trade needs to close faster,” Ernst & Young, last
modified May 16, 2023, https://www.ey.com/en_gl/global-trade/why-the-gender-gap
-in-international-trade-needs-to-close-faster.
Hatch, Miranda, “Is Trade Sexist? How “Pink” Tariff Policies’ Harmful Effects Can Be Curtailed
Through Litigation and Legislation,” BYU Law Review 47, no. 2 (2022): 651-684,
https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3351&context=lawreview.
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/women-in-informal-economy#:~:text=Working%20in%20this%20informal%2C%20or,
including%20risk%20of%20sexual%20harassment.
The World Bank, “Women and Trade: The role of trade in promoting gender equality,” (International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2020), https://www.wto.org/english/
res_e/booksp_e/women_trade_pub2807_e.pdf.