4. 4000-1000 BCE Women in the First City States
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Emerging hierarchies in the city states changed women's roles forever, but not all city states were the same. Some gave women greater social respect as others. It's important to dive into these nuances and the roles that women DID play in the city states.
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The earliest cities appeared around 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia, modern day Iraq. This was the first of many river valley civilizations that would appear across the world, including the Nile, Indus, and Yellow River Valley. These new complex societies led to more sophisticated urban life and bureaucracy in emerging city states. Thousands of people lived in the cities, class and gender distinctions arose. The need to account for ownership of resources led to the rise of written language, and therefore recorded history (a history to which women were central!).
The establishment of hierarchies in some societies led to the erosion of equality and a decline in women’s status. Surplus allowed some people to generate large amounts of excess food and other items. Class differences emerged, rank became normal and natural, enslaved laborers performed many back-breaking tasks, and women and their work diminished in value. The status of women plummeted as a result of societies becoming more complex leading to the rise of the “patriarchal ideal” which “regarded men as superior to women and sons preferable to daughters,." Surplus grain led to the rise of property and therefore property rights, which in most places were bestowed to men. In many cases, women were considered a variety of property. Women, because of increased fertility, labored longer in domestic life, which eventually resulted in women’s domesticity becoming the norm. Women were defined through their relationships, and men regulated the social and sexual lives of the women in their families.
Gender and gender expression remained a significant part of how a person lived his or her life.. One historian explained: “No division of human society has held greater significance for the lives of individuals as those of sex and gender.”
Mesopotamia
The city states in Sumer, in the Middle East, emerged around 3,500 BCE. They are believed to have been the first in world history. These cities housed tens of thousands of residents each, and they had comprehensive systems for managing property, trade, and exchange. Grain was hugely important to these early civilizations, as it provided stable food sources and calories. Farmers paid taxes in grain, which were stored by priests in store houses (for use by royals, priests, nobles) which possibly later became temples. Priests often managed and kept the grain reserves and recorded ownership. Thus emerged the earliest writing, highlighting the importance of record-keeping in ancient societies.
The world’s first priest was a woman, Enheduanna, who lived around 2,300 BCE. Enheduanna authored the oldest surviving religious text, a hymn honoring the Sumerian goddess, Innana. Throughout the Sumerian city states, women were permitted to be priests, but generally only wealthy girls attended schools and therefore obtained the training needed to become a priest– thus class greatly affected women’s lives.
The establishment of hierarchies in some societies led to the erosion of equality and a decline in women’s status. Surplus allowed some people to generate large amounts of excess food and other items. Class differences emerged, rank became normal and natural, enslaved laborers performed many back-breaking tasks, and women and their work diminished in value. The status of women plummeted as a result of societies becoming more complex leading to the rise of the “patriarchal ideal” which “regarded men as superior to women and sons preferable to daughters,." Surplus grain led to the rise of property and therefore property rights, which in most places were bestowed to men. In many cases, women were considered a variety of property. Women, because of increased fertility, labored longer in domestic life, which eventually resulted in women’s domesticity becoming the norm. Women were defined through their relationships, and men regulated the social and sexual lives of the women in their families.
Gender and gender expression remained a significant part of how a person lived his or her life.. One historian explained: “No division of human society has held greater significance for the lives of individuals as those of sex and gender.”
Mesopotamia
The city states in Sumer, in the Middle East, emerged around 3,500 BCE. They are believed to have been the first in world history. These cities housed tens of thousands of residents each, and they had comprehensive systems for managing property, trade, and exchange. Grain was hugely important to these early civilizations, as it provided stable food sources and calories. Farmers paid taxes in grain, which were stored by priests in store houses (for use by royals, priests, nobles) which possibly later became temples. Priests often managed and kept the grain reserves and recorded ownership. Thus emerged the earliest writing, highlighting the importance of record-keeping in ancient societies.
The world’s first priest was a woman, Enheduanna, who lived around 2,300 BCE. Enheduanna authored the oldest surviving religious text, a hymn honoring the Sumerian goddess, Innana. Throughout the Sumerian city states, women were permitted to be priests, but generally only wealthy girls attended schools and therefore obtained the training needed to become a priest– thus class greatly affected women’s lives.
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People married to secure stable family units. Literature and poems from the time discuss romantic and loving relationships, but these would have been uncommon matches. Mesopotamian families were most interested in the family unit and its protection. So a wealthy and healthy match was the ideal.
In times of desperation, poor families would sometimes sell their daughters into slavery or prostitution, but these roles looked slightly different from how we think of them today. While slavery placed huge restrictions on people’s individual liberty and autonomy, enslaved people were often regarded more as servants and were able to earn their freedom. Prostitutes did not live the degrading life often associated with it today. Instead, prostitutes had an income and sometimes would serve a spiritual role in the temples.
Some women engaged in trading, especially in weaving and selling cloth, perfume, incense, and performing midwifery. Weaving and selling cloth produced immense wealth for Mesopotamia and temples employed thousands of women in making cloth. Women owned and ran taverns which gave them wealth and influence in their communities. They also helped with food production, brewing beer and wine. The role that women played in this is exemplified by the Goddess Ninkasi, the patron of beer. A poem dating back to 2100 BCE praises her role: "Ninkasi the expert who redounds to her mother's credit. Her fermenting-vat is of green lapis lazuli, her beer cask is of refined silver and of gold. If she stands by the beer, there is joy, if she sits by the beer, there is gladness; as cupbearer she mixes the beer, never wearying as she walks back and forth, Ninkasi, the keg at her side, on her hips; may she make my beer-serving perfect.”
Kubaba
Kubaba was the first female monarch in recorded history, living between 2500 and 2330 BCE in Sumer. We know about her because she's on the Sumerian King’s list– not a queen’s list– King’s list, which means she ruled outright. She was not a consort. The list often blurs the line between historic fact and legend. It says, "the woman Tavern keeper who made firm the foundations of Kish." Thus, she rose to power after being a tavern keeper. A tavern keeper holds a lot of power, providing shelter, food, and building relationships.
In times of desperation, poor families would sometimes sell their daughters into slavery or prostitution, but these roles looked slightly different from how we think of them today. While slavery placed huge restrictions on people’s individual liberty and autonomy, enslaved people were often regarded more as servants and were able to earn their freedom. Prostitutes did not live the degrading life often associated with it today. Instead, prostitutes had an income and sometimes would serve a spiritual role in the temples.
Some women engaged in trading, especially in weaving and selling cloth, perfume, incense, and performing midwifery. Weaving and selling cloth produced immense wealth for Mesopotamia and temples employed thousands of women in making cloth. Women owned and ran taverns which gave them wealth and influence in their communities. They also helped with food production, brewing beer and wine. The role that women played in this is exemplified by the Goddess Ninkasi, the patron of beer. A poem dating back to 2100 BCE praises her role: "Ninkasi the expert who redounds to her mother's credit. Her fermenting-vat is of green lapis lazuli, her beer cask is of refined silver and of gold. If she stands by the beer, there is joy, if she sits by the beer, there is gladness; as cupbearer she mixes the beer, never wearying as she walks back and forth, Ninkasi, the keg at her side, on her hips; may she make my beer-serving perfect.”
Kubaba
Kubaba was the first female monarch in recorded history, living between 2500 and 2330 BCE in Sumer. We know about her because she's on the Sumerian King’s list– not a queen’s list– King’s list, which means she ruled outright. She was not a consort. The list often blurs the line between historic fact and legend. It says, "the woman Tavern keeper who made firm the foundations of Kish." Thus, she rose to power after being a tavern keeper. A tavern keeper holds a lot of power, providing shelter, food, and building relationships.
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Another source is a bit more detailed. This source says Kubaba feeds a fisherman and persuades him to offer his catch to a god to earn his favor. His response comes as no surprise. He “entrusted to her, the tavern keeper, sovereignty over the whole world.”
She was said to have ruled for 100 years. She is believed to have fortified the city and made it very strong. And after her rule, leadership passed to her son and later her grandson, creating a dynasty. Her epitaph is longer than most kings’ revealing her significance.
This woman who existed, faded, and 1000 years later emerged in the Hittite period, eventually becoming a divine goddess-like being. Kubaba became the great mother of gods and she still boasted a cult of worshipers as late as 3000 years after her death. The prefix Ku means holy. So "Holy Baba."
Epic of Gilgamesh and Ishtar
The oldest story in the world was written in ancient Mesopotamia between 2900 BCE and 2350 BCE. It is called The Epic of Gilgamesh. The tale itself discusses the role of women in “civilizing men,” especially the central figure Shamhat, a Temple Prostitute.
The King, Giglamesh, represents settled life and “civilization,” as he comes from the walled city and battles with a beast-man, named Enkidu, to prove his superiority. A beast-man named Enkidu who is hairy, unwashed, runs with the beasts of the wild, and has never had bread or beer— the symbols of civilization- comes to King Gilgamesh’s city of Uruk. Shamhat, the prostitute, tames him and brings him to the Shepherds where he learns how to domesticate beasts. He eats bread, drinks beer, washes, puts on clothes, and falls in love.
After being tamed, he battles with King Gilgamesh on the walls of the city of Uruk. The two become friends and decide to go on adventures together. The Epic of Gilgamesh tells tales of their heroism and adventure, battles and encounters with supernatural beings. The two heroes are often troubled by or assisted by jealous or helpful gods and goddesses, including the goddess Ishtar.
Hammurabi The first legal codes were recorded almost a millennium later in 1800 BCE under King Hammurabi of Assyria. The code was carved into stones throughout the empire, visible to all. He likely didn’t invent these laws, but rather recorded common practices from the region. For women, these laws offered some protections, but also codified their subordination. Most of the laws were about crimes and relationships and followed an “if, then” pattern providing a clear and “just” consequence.
For example, if a man killed a pregnant “maid-servant,” he was punished with a fine, but if he killed a “free-born” pregnant woman, his own daughter would be killed in retribution. If a baby died in a nursemaid's care, she could have her breasts cut off.
Respectable women were those under the control of one man. They veiled themselves and rarely went outside. Disreputable women, such as slaves and prostitutes, were forbidden to wear veils as a symbol of their inferior status. Thus, veiling became a status symbol among women.
According to laws 137 to 143, women who neglected their husbands would be thrown into water and drowned. Men who did the same would only have to pay back the dowry if she had produced children. Men had extramarital relationships with maid-servants and slaves, but women who did were often drowned. Even in situations where both people were at fault, women's sexuality was heavily regulated. A woman accused of adultery with or without evidence, had to prove her innocence in dangerous rituals. Some laws show concern about abandoned women and children during wartime.
Nile River Valley
The Nile River Valley seems to have been somewhat less patriarchal than its neighbor. Women had similar legal status and rights as men, were able to divorce and run businesses, but social pressure may have prevented them from exercising those rights. Women and men are often depicted in art in loving embraces that appear mutual. Mesopotamian and Egyptian rulers engaged in diplomacy. Mesopotamian rulers were accustomed to marrying their daughters off to establish peace between states, but Egyptians found this oppressive. One Egyptian diplomat wrote, "From ancient times the daughter of the king of Egypt has not been given to anyone." Egyptian women were even known to be Pharaohs, which allows us to know a few specific women.
MerNeith was a queen consort and regent that lived around 2970 BCE. She may have ruled in her own right for a period of time as her tomb is similar to other Egyptian kings with a large underground chamber, graves for servants, sacrificial offerings, and a solar boat. Her name is also included in a list of pharaohs with the title "King's Mother." If she truly ruled in her own right, MerNeith would replace Kubaba as the first in recorded history.
Nefertiti is considered one of the most mysterious and powerful women in ancient Egypt, ruling from 1353-1336 BCE. She came to power as a favored consort of Pharaoh Akhenaten. Eventually she became his wife and is depicted alongside her husband with an unprecedented frequency. She gave birth to six daughters, and so her husband started taking on other wives to try to get a male heir, including his own sister.
Eventually they made a politically problematic move to replace Egypt’s polytheistic faith in many gods with monotheism under the Sun God called Aten. This caused such an uproar they had to move the capital to secure their power.
Nefertiti has been pretty much wiped from the historic record so some people think that maybe she died, but it's also possible that she ruled outright under a different name. Interestingly, no one has found her burial place which is unusual for a Queen of her status. Her husband fathered the future King Tut. Tut owes his fame to the stunning treasures that were buried with him and recently discovered. But Tut died in his teens, so one theory is that his elaborate tomb (which certainly could not have been built in time for his premature death) was actually built for Nefertiti. In his chamber with him, there are pictures that look like her so maybe that is where this powerful queen of Egypt rests?
Finally, Hatshepsut reigned between 1478-1458 BCE. She became queen of Egypt after marrying her half-brother at the age of twelve. Then she became regent to her infant stepson Thutmose III when her husband died. Eventually, Hatshepsut assumed the title and full powers of pharaoh. She demanded to be portrayed in art with all the symbols of a pharaoh, sometimes including a fake beard. Hatshepsut was laid to rest in the Valley of the Kings. Later kings tried to remove her from history, but clearly they failed.
Although the River Valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, and Nile Rivers were the first places where city states emerged, they were not the only ones. Human migrations from 30,000 meant humans occupied much of the Globe and had made their way across Asia to the Americas. From nomadic hunter and gatherer tribes, to sedentary permanent settlements, human civilizations flourished all over the world.
She was said to have ruled for 100 years. She is believed to have fortified the city and made it very strong. And after her rule, leadership passed to her son and later her grandson, creating a dynasty. Her epitaph is longer than most kings’ revealing her significance.
This woman who existed, faded, and 1000 years later emerged in the Hittite period, eventually becoming a divine goddess-like being. Kubaba became the great mother of gods and she still boasted a cult of worshipers as late as 3000 years after her death. The prefix Ku means holy. So "Holy Baba."
Epic of Gilgamesh and Ishtar
The oldest story in the world was written in ancient Mesopotamia between 2900 BCE and 2350 BCE. It is called The Epic of Gilgamesh. The tale itself discusses the role of women in “civilizing men,” especially the central figure Shamhat, a Temple Prostitute.
The King, Giglamesh, represents settled life and “civilization,” as he comes from the walled city and battles with a beast-man, named Enkidu, to prove his superiority. A beast-man named Enkidu who is hairy, unwashed, runs with the beasts of the wild, and has never had bread or beer— the symbols of civilization- comes to King Gilgamesh’s city of Uruk. Shamhat, the prostitute, tames him and brings him to the Shepherds where he learns how to domesticate beasts. He eats bread, drinks beer, washes, puts on clothes, and falls in love.
After being tamed, he battles with King Gilgamesh on the walls of the city of Uruk. The two become friends and decide to go on adventures together. The Epic of Gilgamesh tells tales of their heroism and adventure, battles and encounters with supernatural beings. The two heroes are often troubled by or assisted by jealous or helpful gods and goddesses, including the goddess Ishtar.
Hammurabi The first legal codes were recorded almost a millennium later in 1800 BCE under King Hammurabi of Assyria. The code was carved into stones throughout the empire, visible to all. He likely didn’t invent these laws, but rather recorded common practices from the region. For women, these laws offered some protections, but also codified their subordination. Most of the laws were about crimes and relationships and followed an “if, then” pattern providing a clear and “just” consequence.
For example, if a man killed a pregnant “maid-servant,” he was punished with a fine, but if he killed a “free-born” pregnant woman, his own daughter would be killed in retribution. If a baby died in a nursemaid's care, she could have her breasts cut off.
Respectable women were those under the control of one man. They veiled themselves and rarely went outside. Disreputable women, such as slaves and prostitutes, were forbidden to wear veils as a symbol of their inferior status. Thus, veiling became a status symbol among women.
According to laws 137 to 143, women who neglected their husbands would be thrown into water and drowned. Men who did the same would only have to pay back the dowry if she had produced children. Men had extramarital relationships with maid-servants and slaves, but women who did were often drowned. Even in situations where both people were at fault, women's sexuality was heavily regulated. A woman accused of adultery with or without evidence, had to prove her innocence in dangerous rituals. Some laws show concern about abandoned women and children during wartime.
Nile River Valley
The Nile River Valley seems to have been somewhat less patriarchal than its neighbor. Women had similar legal status and rights as men, were able to divorce and run businesses, but social pressure may have prevented them from exercising those rights. Women and men are often depicted in art in loving embraces that appear mutual. Mesopotamian and Egyptian rulers engaged in diplomacy. Mesopotamian rulers were accustomed to marrying their daughters off to establish peace between states, but Egyptians found this oppressive. One Egyptian diplomat wrote, "From ancient times the daughter of the king of Egypt has not been given to anyone." Egyptian women were even known to be Pharaohs, which allows us to know a few specific women.
MerNeith was a queen consort and regent that lived around 2970 BCE. She may have ruled in her own right for a period of time as her tomb is similar to other Egyptian kings with a large underground chamber, graves for servants, sacrificial offerings, and a solar boat. Her name is also included in a list of pharaohs with the title "King's Mother." If she truly ruled in her own right, MerNeith would replace Kubaba as the first in recorded history.
Nefertiti is considered one of the most mysterious and powerful women in ancient Egypt, ruling from 1353-1336 BCE. She came to power as a favored consort of Pharaoh Akhenaten. Eventually she became his wife and is depicted alongside her husband with an unprecedented frequency. She gave birth to six daughters, and so her husband started taking on other wives to try to get a male heir, including his own sister.
Eventually they made a politically problematic move to replace Egypt’s polytheistic faith in many gods with monotheism under the Sun God called Aten. This caused such an uproar they had to move the capital to secure their power.
Nefertiti has been pretty much wiped from the historic record so some people think that maybe she died, but it's also possible that she ruled outright under a different name. Interestingly, no one has found her burial place which is unusual for a Queen of her status. Her husband fathered the future King Tut. Tut owes his fame to the stunning treasures that were buried with him and recently discovered. But Tut died in his teens, so one theory is that his elaborate tomb (which certainly could not have been built in time for his premature death) was actually built for Nefertiti. In his chamber with him, there are pictures that look like her so maybe that is where this powerful queen of Egypt rests?
Finally, Hatshepsut reigned between 1478-1458 BCE. She became queen of Egypt after marrying her half-brother at the age of twelve. Then she became regent to her infant stepson Thutmose III when her husband died. Eventually, Hatshepsut assumed the title and full powers of pharaoh. She demanded to be portrayed in art with all the symbols of a pharaoh, sometimes including a fake beard. Hatshepsut was laid to rest in the Valley of the Kings. Later kings tried to remove her from history, but clearly they failed.
Although the River Valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, and Nile Rivers were the first places where city states emerged, they were not the only ones. Human migrations from 30,000 meant humans occupied much of the Globe and had made their way across Asia to the Americas. From nomadic hunter and gatherer tribes, to sedentary permanent settlements, human civilizations flourished all over the world.
Yellow River, Public Domain
Yellow River Valley
Around 2100 to 1600 BCE, tribal groups consolidated to form more permanent city states in the Yellow River Valley of China and created the early Chinese dynasty, the Xia Dynasty. It is most likely that this consolidation occurred because of the need to solve the problem of the dangerous floods and overflow from the Yellow River that would regularly wipe out villages and crops. The mythological Yu the Great, was credited with controlling the waters. But in all of world history we have to ask, how were these pivotal turning points for women?
Consolidation meant a rise in patriarchal control, more authoritarian practices, and a dramatic decline in women’s status in the Yellow River Valley. Some cultures along the river had been egalitarian and matrilineal, but they rapidly disappeared because of violence and social upheaval. Ancient Chinese culture began its first steps toward a rigid ranking system that pushed women toward the bottom. Chinese women adhered to a philosophy called the Three Obediences: “Be obedient to your father before marriage, your husband after marriage and your son when the husband dies.” Never mind the fact that she had literally created that man from her own body. Women had arranged marriages and were sometimes sold into slavery by their own fathers. Annually, a woman was regularly plumped up and sent adrift down the Yellow River as a sacrifice to the Gods.
Out of this early dynasty came a popular folk tale about a wise woman named Loawnu. The children of the town came running to her claiming the sky was falling. She smiled and as the town began preparation for the Spring festival where young teenagers met to find their spouses, she patched the sky with stars; just one of the women holding up the sky for her people over the ages.
Around 2100 to 1600 BCE, tribal groups consolidated to form more permanent city states in the Yellow River Valley of China and created the early Chinese dynasty, the Xia Dynasty. It is most likely that this consolidation occurred because of the need to solve the problem of the dangerous floods and overflow from the Yellow River that would regularly wipe out villages and crops. The mythological Yu the Great, was credited with controlling the waters. But in all of world history we have to ask, how were these pivotal turning points for women?
Consolidation meant a rise in patriarchal control, more authoritarian practices, and a dramatic decline in women’s status in the Yellow River Valley. Some cultures along the river had been egalitarian and matrilineal, but they rapidly disappeared because of violence and social upheaval. Ancient Chinese culture began its first steps toward a rigid ranking system that pushed women toward the bottom. Chinese women adhered to a philosophy called the Three Obediences: “Be obedient to your father before marriage, your husband after marriage and your son when the husband dies.” Never mind the fact that she had literally created that man from her own body. Women had arranged marriages and were sometimes sold into slavery by their own fathers. Annually, a woman was regularly plumped up and sent adrift down the Yellow River as a sacrifice to the Gods.
Out of this early dynasty came a popular folk tale about a wise woman named Loawnu. The children of the town came running to her claiming the sky was falling. She smiled and as the town began preparation for the Spring festival where young teenagers met to find their spouses, she patched the sky with stars; just one of the women holding up the sky for her people over the ages.
Dancing Girl, Public Domain
Indus River Valley
In South Asia, complex societies began in the Indus River Valley. While archaeology does provide powerful insights into the culture, little is known about this early city state because no surviving readable language. Most of what is known comes from Hindu oral traditions and archeological evidence.
Surpassing their prehistoric counterparts around the world, Indian women enjoyed a comparatively high status during the early Vedic period. Evidence of female clay figurines highlight the social, cultural role of women in that society. The hair styles, ornaments, and dress clearly indicate the prominence assigned to women at that time in what appeared to be a nearly egalitarian society. Bronze figurines of a “Dancing Girl” led scholars to think women had a variety of activities outside the domestic responsibilities, including dance.
Although the society was patriarchal and had a strict caste system, the abundance of powerful female goddesses and the existence of a female warrior class, shows that women were regarded with high status and respect. There was a prayer for a scholarly daughter and admiring texts for female academics. Vedic texts reveal that women were honored and empowered both in traditional domestic spaces as well as in public spaces traditionally dominated by men.
Conclusion
Across the world, women’s lives in River Valley civilizations were changing rapidly as societies settled and developed more sophisticated systems that often pushed women into subordinate status.
By the end of this era, so much remained in question. What would happen to women as societies continued to become more complex? How would the influence of empires and monotheistic faiths impact the lives of women?
In South Asia, complex societies began in the Indus River Valley. While archaeology does provide powerful insights into the culture, little is known about this early city state because no surviving readable language. Most of what is known comes from Hindu oral traditions and archeological evidence.
Surpassing their prehistoric counterparts around the world, Indian women enjoyed a comparatively high status during the early Vedic period. Evidence of female clay figurines highlight the social, cultural role of women in that society. The hair styles, ornaments, and dress clearly indicate the prominence assigned to women at that time in what appeared to be a nearly egalitarian society. Bronze figurines of a “Dancing Girl” led scholars to think women had a variety of activities outside the domestic responsibilities, including dance.
Although the society was patriarchal and had a strict caste system, the abundance of powerful female goddesses and the existence of a female warrior class, shows that women were regarded with high status and respect. There was a prayer for a scholarly daughter and admiring texts for female academics. Vedic texts reveal that women were honored and empowered both in traditional domestic spaces as well as in public spaces traditionally dominated by men.
Conclusion
Across the world, women’s lives in River Valley civilizations were changing rapidly as societies settled and developed more sophisticated systems that often pushed women into subordinate status.
By the end of this era, so much remained in question. What would happen to women as societies continued to become more complex? How would the influence of empires and monotheistic faiths impact the lives of women?
Draw your own conclusions
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Learn how to teach with inquiry.
Many of these lesson plans were sponsored in part by the Library of Congress Teaching with Primary Sources Eastern Region Program, coordinated by Waynesburg University, the History and Social Studies Education Faculty at Plymouth State University, and the Patrons of the Remedial Herstory Project. |
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Wikimedia Commons
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OTHER: Women in City States
Women in World History has an inquiry on the relatively high status of women and the wide range of their work in Egypt during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut. Check out this inquiry here! They also have an inquiry on women in Athens and Sparta. Check it out here! |
Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- This website, Women in World History has primary source based lesson plans on women's history in a whole range of topics. Some are free while others have a cost.
- The Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media has produced recommendations for teaching women's history with primary sources and provided a collection of sources for world history. Check them out!
- The Stanford History Education Group has a number of lesson plans about women in World History.
Women in Power
Livius: The Weidner Chronicle
Kubaba is the only woman listed as an ancient Sumerian ruler. Overall, little is known for sure about who Kubaba was or how she got to her position. The Sumerian King List, however, makes it clear that Kubaba was a King, not a wife of a King. The Weidner Chronicle is a religious ancient Babylonian text that acted as propaganda to illustrate the Mesopotamian rulers who insulted the god Marduk. In the text, Kubaba convinces a fisherman to offer his catch to Esagila (a temple dedicated to Marduk). In return, Marduk gives Kubaba her kingship.
In the reign of Puzur-Nirah, king of Akšak, the freshwater fishermen of Esagila were catching fish for the meal of the great lord Marduk; the officers of the king took away the fish.The fisherman was fishing when 7 (or 8) days had passed [...] in the house of Kubaba, the tavern-keeper [...] they brought to Esagila…Kubaba gave bread to the fisherman and gave water, she made him offer the fish to Esagila. Marduk, [a god] the king, the prince of the Apsû, favored her and said: "Let it be so!" He entrusted to Kubaba, the tavern-keeper, sovereignty over the whole world.
Weidner Chronicle, Livius. https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-19-weidner-chronicle/.
Questions:
In the reign of Puzur-Nirah, king of Akšak, the freshwater fishermen of Esagila were catching fish for the meal of the great lord Marduk; the officers of the king took away the fish.The fisherman was fishing when 7 (or 8) days had passed [...] in the house of Kubaba, the tavern-keeper [...] they brought to Esagila…Kubaba gave bread to the fisherman and gave water, she made him offer the fish to Esagila. Marduk, [a god] the king, the prince of the Apsû, favored her and said: "Let it be so!" He entrusted to Kubaba, the tavern-keeper, sovereignty over the whole world.
Weidner Chronicle, Livius. https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-19-weidner-chronicle/.
Questions:
- Based upon this text, how did Kubaba rise to power?
Livius: The Sumerian King List
This document is an extract from the Sumerian King List introducing Kubaba. The Sumerian King List is famous for blurring the line between fiction and reality. ‘Kiš’ refers to the ancient city of Kish. Mari is a king.
Then Mari was defeated and the kingship was taken to Kiš. In Kiš, Ku-Baba, the woman tavern-keeper, who made firm the foundations of Kiš, became king; she ruled for 100 years. One queen ruled for 100 years.
Then Kiš was defeated and the kingship was taken to Akšak.
The Sumerian King List, Livius. Available at: https://www.livius.org/sources/content/anet/266-the-sumerian-king-list/ (Accessed: October 5, 2022).
Questions:
Then Mari was defeated and the kingship was taken to Kiš. In Kiš, Ku-Baba, the woman tavern-keeper, who made firm the foundations of Kiš, became king; she ruled for 100 years. One queen ruled for 100 years.
Then Kiš was defeated and the kingship was taken to Akšak.
The Sumerian King List, Livius. Available at: https://www.livius.org/sources/content/anet/266-the-sumerian-king-list/ (Accessed: October 5, 2022).
Questions:
- Based upon this text, how did Kubaba rise to power?
Women and Healthcare
Hippocrates: Diseases of Women 1
Diseases of Women is a collection of writings by the classical Greek author, Hippocrates, on gynecology. Hippocrates is often regarded as the father of modern medicine. The document below describes the Hippocratic understanding of why women experienced a menstrual bleed and how a woman might avoid menstrual issues.
Since in a woman who has not given birth, the body is not accustomed to being filled up (sc. with blood), but is robust, solider and denser than if she had experienced the lochia, and her uterus has not been dilated, her menstrual flow will be accompanied by more pain, and more troubles will be present: i.e., her menses will be obstructed when she has not given birth. This is so for the reason I first indicated when I contended that a woman is more porous and softer than a man; this being so, a woman’s body draws what is being exhaled from her cavity more quickly and in a greater amount than does a man’s...
Also, because a woman’s flesh is softer, when her body fills up with blood, unless the blood is then discharged from her body, the filling and warming, of their tissues that ensue will provoke pain: for a woman has hotter blood, and for this reason she herself is hotter than a man; if, however, most the blood that was added is subsequently discharged, no pain will arise from it. A man, having solider flesh than a woman, will never overfill with so much blood that, unless some it is discharged each month, he feels pain, and besides he takes in only as much (sc. blood) as is necessary for the nourishment his body, and his body—lacking softness as it does—is never overstretched or heated by fullness as a woman’s is. A great amount this is also due in a man to his exerting himself physically more than a woman, which consumes a part of the exhalation (sc. rising from his food).
Now when, in a woman who has not given birth, the menses fail to appear and cannot find their way out, a disease arises, and this happens if the mouth the uterus is closed or folded over, or some part the vagina has become constricted; for if any these things happens, the menses will be unable to find their way out until the uterus returns to a natural healthy state. This disease generally occurs in whose uterus has a narrow mouth or neck lying further forward into the vagina. For if either these be the case, and the woman does not have intercourse with her husband, and her cavity is more empty than it should be as the result of some disease, the uterus turns aside. For it has no moistness of its own, since the woman is not having intercourse, and there is an open space for it since the cavity is too empty, so that it turns aside because it is drier and lighter than it should be. And sometimes as it turns aside its mouth becomes displaced too far to one side because its neck is lying too far into the vagina. For if the uterus is moist as the result of intercourse and the cavity is not empty, it is not likely to turn aside. This is why the uterus closes as the result of a woman not having intercourse.
Hippocrates, Diseases of Women, Book 1. Translation by Potter. P (2018) London: Loeb Classical Library.
Questions:
- Based off this document, what does Hippocrates believe the relationship between sex and menstruation to be?
- What misogynistic (fearful or hateful) ideas about women can you find in this document?
- What can you infer about Hippocrates perception of women and menstruation?
Soranus of Ephesus: Gynecology
Soranus of Ephesus was a Greek gynecologist who commented on women’s diseases and childbearing. His work also features a 2nd century BCE understanding of menstrual cycles and what is now known as amenorrhea (an absence of menstruation).
Now of those who do not menstruate, some have no ailment and it is physiological for them not to menstruate: either because of their age (as in those too young or on the contrary too old) or because they are pregnant, or mannish, or barren singers and athletes in whom nothing is left over for menstruation, everything being consumed by the exercises or changed into tissue. Others, however, do not menstruate because of a disease of the uterus, or of the rest of the body, or of both: “of the uterus” if the condition of so-called imperforation is present, or callosity, or scirrhus, or inflammation, or a scar has formed on a sore, or a closure of the orifice (from long widowhood among other causes).
Soranus of Ephesus, Gynecology. Translation by Temkin. O (1956) Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press
Questions:
- Based off this document, what does Soranus of Ephesus believe a lack of menstruation to be caused by? Do any of those reasons seem inaccurate? Why or why not?
- What misogynistic (fearful or hateful) ideas about women can you find in this document?
- What can you infer about Soranus of Ephesus's perception of women and menstruation?
Pliny the Elder: Natural History
Pliny the Elder was a Roman author and philosopher most notably known for his work ‘Natural History’. In the following text, Pliny discusses the dangers of menstrual blood.
“But it is not easy that anything should be discovered that is more monstrous than woman’s menstrual fluid. New wine turns sour by coming near it, crops that are touched become barren, grafts whither, seeds of the garden dry up, fruit of trees by which she sits falls off, the brightness of mirrors are dimmed by reflecting her, the edge of iron is dulled, the brightness of ivory, beehives die, bronze and even iron are seized by rust, and the air is seized by an awful smell. Dogs become rabid by tasting it and their bite is infected by an incurable poison. In fact, bitumen, too, which has an otherwise pliable and sticky nature and which floats at certain times of the year on the lake of Judaea, which is called Asphaltites, is not able to be divided up, as it sticks to everything it makes contact with, except a thread which is infected with this slime. Also ants, the tiniest animal, and sensitive to its presence, reject the tasty fruit which it was carrying never to return to it again.”
Coughlin, S. (2022). Aristotle on menstruating women and mirrors — Ancient Medicine. [online] Ancient Medicine. Available at: <https://www.ancientmedicine.org/home/2020/7/26/aristotle-on-menstruating-women-and-mirrors> [Accessed 14 October 2022].
Questions:
“But it is not easy that anything should be discovered that is more monstrous than woman’s menstrual fluid. New wine turns sour by coming near it, crops that are touched become barren, grafts whither, seeds of the garden dry up, fruit of trees by which she sits falls off, the brightness of mirrors are dimmed by reflecting her, the edge of iron is dulled, the brightness of ivory, beehives die, bronze and even iron are seized by rust, and the air is seized by an awful smell. Dogs become rabid by tasting it and their bite is infected by an incurable poison. In fact, bitumen, too, which has an otherwise pliable and sticky nature and which floats at certain times of the year on the lake of Judaea, which is called Asphaltites, is not able to be divided up, as it sticks to everything it makes contact with, except a thread which is infected with this slime. Also ants, the tiniest animal, and sensitive to its presence, reject the tasty fruit which it was carrying never to return to it again.”
Coughlin, S. (2022). Aristotle on menstruating women and mirrors — Ancient Medicine. [online] Ancient Medicine. Available at: <https://www.ancientmedicine.org/home/2020/7/26/aristotle-on-menstruating-women-and-mirrors> [Accessed 14 October 2022].
Questions:
- What does Pliny the Elder believe that menstruation blood does?
- What misogynistic (fearful or hateful) ideas about women can you find in this document?
- What can you infer about Pliny the Elder's perception of women and menstruation?
Sotira: Efficacy of Menstrual Fluid
Although little is known about Sotira, we believe she was a Roman midwife. Her work now only exists in small fragments. The following document discusses the magical properties of menstrual fluid.
“To anoint the soles of the patient's feet with menstrual fluid is the most efficacious cure for tertian and quartan malaria; it is much more effective if it is done by the woman herself without the patient's knowledge. The same remedy also awakens an epileptic.”
Tan. D. A, Haththotuwa. R, Fraser. I. S (2017) ‘Cultural aspects and mythologies surrounding menstruation and abnormal uterine bleeding’ In Best Practice and Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology. Amsterdam: Elseiver
Questions:
“To anoint the soles of the patient's feet with menstrual fluid is the most efficacious cure for tertian and quartan malaria; it is much more effective if it is done by the woman herself without the patient's knowledge. The same remedy also awakens an epileptic.”
Tan. D. A, Haththotuwa. R, Fraser. I. S (2017) ‘Cultural aspects and mythologies surrounding menstruation and abnormal uterine bleeding’ In Best Practice and Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology. Amsterdam: Elseiver
Questions:
- What does Sotira believe that menstruation blood does?
- What can you infer about Sotira's perception of women and menstruation?
Unknown: The Papyrus Ebers
The Papyrus ebers are a group of Egyptian medical texts containing herbal formulas and mythical remedies to cure an array of ailments.
‘If you examine a woman having pain in her stomach while hsmn (meaning menstruation) does not come for her, and you find (. . .), then you shall say concerning it: this is a case of obstruction of the blood in her uterus. If you examine a woman who has spent many years while hsmn does not come for her, she habitually spews up something like water, her stomach being like that which is under fire, but it stops when she has spewed up, then you shall say concerning it: this is an accumulation of blood in her uterus because she is bewitched. If you examine a woman having pain in one side of her vulva, you should say concerning it: this means that her hsmn has lost its regularity. When it (i.e., the hsmn) has started, you shall make for her: smashed garlic, cider and sawdust of fir tree. Her pubic region is to be bandaged with it’
This short text is also an extract from the Papyrus Ebers and discusses some medicinal use of menstrual blood.
“sagging breasts should be covered with menstrual blood, and the woman's belly and her thighs should be covered as well”
Frandsen. P. J (2007) ‘The Menstrual “Taboo” in Ancient Egypt’ In Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 66, No. 2, pp.81-206. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Questions:
‘If you examine a woman having pain in her stomach while hsmn (meaning menstruation) does not come for her, and you find (. . .), then you shall say concerning it: this is a case of obstruction of the blood in her uterus. If you examine a woman who has spent many years while hsmn does not come for her, she habitually spews up something like water, her stomach being like that which is under fire, but it stops when she has spewed up, then you shall say concerning it: this is an accumulation of blood in her uterus because she is bewitched. If you examine a woman having pain in one side of her vulva, you should say concerning it: this means that her hsmn has lost its regularity. When it (i.e., the hsmn) has started, you shall make for her: smashed garlic, cider and sawdust of fir tree. Her pubic region is to be bandaged with it’
This short text is also an extract from the Papyrus Ebers and discusses some medicinal use of menstrual blood.
“sagging breasts should be covered with menstrual blood, and the woman's belly and her thighs should be covered as well”
Frandsen. P. J (2007) ‘The Menstrual “Taboo” in Ancient Egypt’ In Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 66, No. 2, pp.81-206. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Questions:
- What does this text believe that menstruation blood does?
- What does this text believe about illness related to mensuration?
Hippocrates: Nature of Women
Nature of Women is a text compiled by Hippocratic authors, or students of Hippocrates, on gynecology. Hippocrates is often regarded as the father of modern medicine, which is strange because he wrote in ancient history. In ancient and classical Greece it was believed that the womb could move around freely in the women’s body resulting in medical problems. When we investigate it, this theory is rooted in misogyny with the womb becoming a weakness and procreation often becoming the solution.
Vocabulary:
This is my account of the nature and diseases of women: the most important factor in human affairs is the divine; then the natures of women, and their complexions: for very white women are moister and more subject to fluxes, and dark women are drier and more constricted, whereas wine-colored women have something of both.
The ages of life have the following significance: young women are generally moister and richer in blood, while old women are drier and have less blood: those between the two have something of both. A person who manages these matters correctly must begin from divine factors, and then distinguish the natures of women, their ages, the seasons, and the places where they happen to be; for cold places promote fluxes, while hot ones are drying and constipating.…
If a woman’s uterus moves against her liver, she will suddenly lose her speech, grind her teeth, and take on a livid [furious] coloring—these things befall her suddenly while she is in a healthy state. This happens to unmarried women, especially if they are advanced in age and widowed, but also if they are young and widowed after having had children.
When the case is such, push the uterus down away from the liver, and bind it with a band under the patient’s hypochondria [excessively and unnecessarily worried about being sick]. Open her mouth and pour in very fragrant wine, and hold evil-smelling fumigants under her nostrils and fragrant ones below her uterus. When the woman comes to her senses, have her:
If a woman’s uterus advances and moves outside [the 21st century medical term for this is a “prolapsed uterus,” which can occur after birth]... and irritates her. She suffers these things… after having given birth, she does not sleep with her husband. When the case is such:
If the uterus descends completely out of the genitalia, it hangs like a scrotum, pain occupies the lower abdomen and loins, and when the pain has set in, it (i.e., the uterus) is unwilling to return to its place. This condition comes on when after giving birth a woman strains her uterus, or sleeps with her husband during her lochial flow [bleeding after birth]. When the case is such, cooling compresses must be applied to the genitalia, and the part outside must be cleaned off; boil pomegranate in dark wine, and after washing with this replace the uterus inside, and then inject a mixture of honey and resin.
Hippocrates, Nature of Women, circa 440 and 360 BCE, Translation by Potter. P (Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 2012).
Questions
Vocabulary:
- hypochondria: In Hippocratic medicine the "hypochondria" was the part of the abdomen between the ribs and the navel. Hippocrates is saying to bind the patient there to prevent her uterus squeezing up against her liver. The meaning of this word has changed. Modern day it means excessively and unnecessarily worried about being sick.
- fumigate: use chemicals that produce good smelling fumes for cleansing
- genitalia: sexual organs, in women this includes the vulva, vagina, uterus, fillopian tubes, etc.
- lochia flow: the normal bleeding after giving birth, which usually lasts for six weeks
This is my account of the nature and diseases of women: the most important factor in human affairs is the divine; then the natures of women, and their complexions: for very white women are moister and more subject to fluxes, and dark women are drier and more constricted, whereas wine-colored women have something of both.
The ages of life have the following significance: young women are generally moister and richer in blood, while old women are drier and have less blood: those between the two have something of both. A person who manages these matters correctly must begin from divine factors, and then distinguish the natures of women, their ages, the seasons, and the places where they happen to be; for cold places promote fluxes, while hot ones are drying and constipating.…
If a woman’s uterus moves against her liver, she will suddenly lose her speech, grind her teeth, and take on a livid [furious] coloring—these things befall her suddenly while she is in a healthy state. This happens to unmarried women, especially if they are advanced in age and widowed, but also if they are young and widowed after having had children.
When the case is such, push the uterus down away from the liver, and bind it with a band under the patient’s hypochondria [excessively and unnecessarily worried about being sick]. Open her mouth and pour in very fragrant wine, and hold evil-smelling fumigants under her nostrils and fragrant ones below her uterus. When the woman comes to her senses, have her:
- drink a… medication
- and after that ass’s milk
- and then fumigate [use a chemical that produces fumes] her uterus with fragrant [good smelling] substances
- apply a preparation of buprestis
- and on the next day oil of bitter almonds
- leave two days free, and then flush her uterus with fragrant substances
- on the next day apply pennyroyal
- leave one day free and then fumigate with aromatic [good smelling] herbs.
If a woman’s uterus advances and moves outside [the 21st century medical term for this is a “prolapsed uterus,” which can occur after birth]... and irritates her. She suffers these things… after having given birth, she does not sleep with her husband. When the case is such:
- boil myrtle and the sawdust of nettle-tree wood in water
- set this out in the open air, and have the patient pour it as cold as possible onto her genitalia [vulva and vagina]
- also grind this fine and apply it as a plaster.
- Then have her vomit, by drinking lentil water, honey and vinegar, until her uterus is restored to its natural position.
- Positioning her bed with the foot end higher, fumigate beneath her genitalia with evil-smelling substances, and under her nostrils with fragrant ones.
- Have her employ foods that are very mild and cold, drink dilute white wine, and without having a bath sleep with her husband.
If the uterus descends completely out of the genitalia, it hangs like a scrotum, pain occupies the lower abdomen and loins, and when the pain has set in, it (i.e., the uterus) is unwilling to return to its place. This condition comes on when after giving birth a woman strains her uterus, or sleeps with her husband during her lochial flow [bleeding after birth]. When the case is such, cooling compresses must be applied to the genitalia, and the part outside must be cleaned off; boil pomegranate in dark wine, and after washing with this replace the uterus inside, and then inject a mixture of honey and resin.
Hippocrates, Nature of Women, circa 440 and 360 BCE, Translation by Potter. P (Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 2012).
Questions
- Based off this text, how is age believed to impact women's health?
- What do you think of some of the Hippocratic author’s prescribed solutions? Why?
- Examine the underlined text. Here the Hippocratic author blames women for having a prolapsed uterus, a rare, serious, and painful medical condition where the uterus falls out after birth. What does he accuse them of doing?
- Why might beliefs placing blame on women for their painful conditions be dangerous for women?
Hippocrates: Diseases of Young Girls
Yet another of Hippocrates works, Diseases of Young Girls focuses on the treatment of young girls after puberty. Again, we see this idea of women as the ‘weaker’ sex and the decision not to marry as the cause of their illnesses.
Vocabulary:
[C]oncerning terrors of the sort that people fear so strongly, that they are beside themselves and seem to see certain hostile spirits, sometimes by night, sometimes by day, and sometimes at both times… as a result of this kind of vision, many have already hanged themselves, more women than men, for female nature is weaker and more troublesome.
Young girls of an age for marriage, who remain unmarried, suffer this especially at the time of the descent of their menses [period]. Before puberty they were healthy. Afterwards blood is gathered into their wombs for evacuation. Yet, when the mouth of the exit is not opened and more blood flows in due to their nourishment and the increase of their body, then the blood, not having a way to flow out, rushes from the quantity towards the heart and the diaphragm. When these parts are filled, the heart becomes numb; then lethargy [laziness] seizes them after the numbness, then after the lethargy, madness seizes them… When these things occur in this way, the young girl is mad from the intensity of the inflammation; she turns murderous from the putrefaction; she feels fears and terrors from the darkness. From the pressure around the heart, these young girls long for nooses. Their spirit, distraught and sorely troubled by the foulness of their blood, attracts bad things, but names something else, even fearful things. They command the young girl to wander about, to cast herself into wells, and to hang herself, as if these actions were preferable and completely useful. Even when without visions, a certain pleasure exists, as a result of which she longs for death, as if something good.
When the female is recovering her senses, the women dedicate to Artemis many other things and especially expensive female clothing at the orders of the goddess's priests. But the women are being deceived. Release from this comes whenever there is no impediment for the flowing out of the blood. I urge, then whenever young girls suffer this kind of malady [sickness] they should as quickly as possible… become pregnant, they become healthy. If not, either at the same moment as puberty, or later, she will be caught by this sickness, if not by another
Hippocrates, Peri Parthenion (Diseases of Young Girls). Translated by Flemming. R, Hanson. A. E. (Leiden:Brill, 1998).
Guiding Questions
Vocabulary:
- menses: period
- womb: uterus
- diaphragm: part of their lungs
- lethargy: laziness
- malady: sickness
[C]oncerning terrors of the sort that people fear so strongly, that they are beside themselves and seem to see certain hostile spirits, sometimes by night, sometimes by day, and sometimes at both times… as a result of this kind of vision, many have already hanged themselves, more women than men, for female nature is weaker and more troublesome.
Young girls of an age for marriage, who remain unmarried, suffer this especially at the time of the descent of their menses [period]. Before puberty they were healthy. Afterwards blood is gathered into their wombs for evacuation. Yet, when the mouth of the exit is not opened and more blood flows in due to their nourishment and the increase of their body, then the blood, not having a way to flow out, rushes from the quantity towards the heart and the diaphragm. When these parts are filled, the heart becomes numb; then lethargy [laziness] seizes them after the numbness, then after the lethargy, madness seizes them… When these things occur in this way, the young girl is mad from the intensity of the inflammation; she turns murderous from the putrefaction; she feels fears and terrors from the darkness. From the pressure around the heart, these young girls long for nooses. Their spirit, distraught and sorely troubled by the foulness of their blood, attracts bad things, but names something else, even fearful things. They command the young girl to wander about, to cast herself into wells, and to hang herself, as if these actions were preferable and completely useful. Even when without visions, a certain pleasure exists, as a result of which she longs for death, as if something good.
When the female is recovering her senses, the women dedicate to Artemis many other things and especially expensive female clothing at the orders of the goddess's priests. But the women are being deceived. Release from this comes whenever there is no impediment for the flowing out of the blood. I urge, then whenever young girls suffer this kind of malady [sickness] they should as quickly as possible… become pregnant, they become healthy. If not, either at the same moment as puberty, or later, she will be caught by this sickness, if not by another
Hippocrates, Peri Parthenion (Diseases of Young Girls). Translated by Flemming. R, Hanson. A. E. (Leiden:Brill, 1998).
Guiding Questions
- This document is describing a condition called PMS, or premenstrual syndrome. According to the text, what effect does PMS have on women?
- According to the text, who gets PMS?
- What solution does the Hippocratic author prescribe?
Plato: Timaeus
Plato was a classical Greek philosopher born in Athens, Greece. He is remembered for many works, one of these being Timaeus, a dialogue on the nature of human beings. In this extract, Plato compares the natures of men and women.
According to the probable account, all those creatures generated as men who proved themselves cowardly and spent their lives in wrong-doing were transformed, at their second incarnation, into women. And it was for this reason that the gods at that time contrived the love of sexual intercourse by constructing an animate creature of one kind in us men, and of another kind in women; and they made these severally in the following fashion…
Wherefore in men the nature of the genital organs is disobedient and self-willed, like a creature that is deaf to reason, and it attempts to dominate all because of its frenzied lusts. And in women again, owing to the same causes, whenever the matrix or womb, as it is called,—which is an indwelling creature desirous of child-bearing,—remains without fruit long beyond the due season, it is vexed and takes it ill; and by straying all ways through the body and blocking up the passages of the breath and preventing respiration it casts the body into the uttermost distress, and causes, moreover, all kinds of maladies; until the desire and love of the two sexes unite them. Then, culling as it were the fruit from trees, they sow upon the womb, as upon ploughed soil, animalcules [a microscopic animal] that are invisible… mold into shape and nourish to a great size within the body; after which they bring them forth into the light and thus complete the generation of the living creature.
Plato, Timaeus. Critias. Cleitophon. Menexenus. Epistles. circa 5th century BCE. Translated by Bury. R. G. Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 1929.
Questions
According to the probable account, all those creatures generated as men who proved themselves cowardly and spent their lives in wrong-doing were transformed, at their second incarnation, into women. And it was for this reason that the gods at that time contrived the love of sexual intercourse by constructing an animate creature of one kind in us men, and of another kind in women; and they made these severally in the following fashion…
Wherefore in men the nature of the genital organs is disobedient and self-willed, like a creature that is deaf to reason, and it attempts to dominate all because of its frenzied lusts. And in women again, owing to the same causes, whenever the matrix or womb, as it is called,—which is an indwelling creature desirous of child-bearing,—remains without fruit long beyond the due season, it is vexed and takes it ill; and by straying all ways through the body and blocking up the passages of the breath and preventing respiration it casts the body into the uttermost distress, and causes, moreover, all kinds of maladies; until the desire and love of the two sexes unite them. Then, culling as it were the fruit from trees, they sow upon the womb, as upon ploughed soil, animalcules [a microscopic animal] that are invisible… mold into shape and nourish to a great size within the body; after which they bring them forth into the light and thus complete the generation of the living creature.
Plato, Timaeus. Critias. Cleitophon. Menexenus. Epistles. circa 5th century BCE. Translated by Bury. R. G. Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 1929.
Questions
- In this document Plato refers to an “indwelling creature.” What do you suppose that is?
- What does this creature want?
- What happens when the creature doesn’t get it?
Women and Gender Roles
Hammurabi's Code: Accusations
Hammurabi’s Code code was a compilation of almost three hundred laws on every aspect of life placed on stones throughout the region. These laws were likely compiled from standing traditions, not new laws. It is difficult to know how well enforced these laws were, but they were clearly recorded by a powerful King, Hammurabi, who believed a unified legal code would create a more stable society.
1. If any one accuses another of murder but cannot prove it, then the accuser shall be put to death.
2. If anyone accuses someone else of sorcery, the accused shall leap into the river, and if s/he drowns the accuser shall take possession of the accused's house and belongings. However, if the accused reaches the shore unharmed and the river thus proves that the accused is innocent of the charges, then the accuser shall be put to death, while the one who leaped into the river shall take possession of the house and belongings of the accuser.
3. If any one brings an accusation that involves a capital murder charge and does not prove what he has charged, the accuser shall be put to death.
127. If any one "point the finger" at (slanders or accuses of adultery) a holy woman or someone else’s wife but cannot prove it, this man shall be taken before the judges and his brow shall be marked (by cutting the skin, or perhaps cutting off half his hair.)
Questions:
Based on these laws, how was an accusation against a woman different from an accusation against a man?
1. If any one accuses another of murder but cannot prove it, then the accuser shall be put to death.
2. If anyone accuses someone else of sorcery, the accused shall leap into the river, and if s/he drowns the accuser shall take possession of the accused's house and belongings. However, if the accused reaches the shore unharmed and the river thus proves that the accused is innocent of the charges, then the accuser shall be put to death, while the one who leaped into the river shall take possession of the house and belongings of the accuser.
3. If any one brings an accusation that involves a capital murder charge and does not prove what he has charged, the accuser shall be put to death.
127. If any one "point the finger" at (slanders or accuses of adultery) a holy woman or someone else’s wife but cannot prove it, this man shall be taken before the judges and his brow shall be marked (by cutting the skin, or perhaps cutting off half his hair.)
Questions:
Based on these laws, how was an accusation against a woman different from an accusation against a man?
Hammurabi's Code: Social Norms
Hammurabi’s Code code was a compilation of almost three hundred laws on every aspect of life placed on stones throughout the region. These laws were likely compiled from standing traditions, not new laws. It is difficult to know how well enforced these laws were, but they were clearly recorded by a powerful King, Hammurabi, who believed a unified legal code would create a more stable society.
108. If a woman wineseller/tavern-keeper (feminine) does not accept grain according to gross weight in payment of drink, but takes money so that the price of the drink is less than that of the grain, she shall be convicted and thrown into the water.
109. If outlaws meet in the tavern and are not captured and delivered to the court/palace, the female tavern-keeper shall be put to death.
110. If a holy woman opens a tavern door or enters a tavern for a drink, she shall be burned to death.
119. If anyone fails to repay a debt and thus settles the debt by selling a maid servant who has borne him children, for money, the money which the merchant has paid shall be repaid to him by the owner of the slave and she shall be freed.
Questions:
Based on these laws, how were women treated differently from men?
108. If a woman wineseller/tavern-keeper (feminine) does not accept grain according to gross weight in payment of drink, but takes money so that the price of the drink is less than that of the grain, she shall be convicted and thrown into the water.
109. If outlaws meet in the tavern and are not captured and delivered to the court/palace, the female tavern-keeper shall be put to death.
110. If a holy woman opens a tavern door or enters a tavern for a drink, she shall be burned to death.
119. If anyone fails to repay a debt and thus settles the debt by selling a maid servant who has borne him children, for money, the money which the merchant has paid shall be repaid to him by the owner of the slave and she shall be freed.
Questions:
Based on these laws, how were women treated differently from men?
Hammurabi's Code: Divorce
Hammurabi’s Code code was a compilation of almost three hundred laws on every aspect of life placed on stones throughout the region. These laws were likely compiled from standing traditions, not new laws. It is difficult to know how well enforced these laws were, but they were clearly recorded by a powerful King, Hammurabi, who believed a unified legal code would create a more stable society.
128. If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her or does not draw up a marriage contract, this woman is no wife to him.
130. If a man violates the wife (betrothed or child-wife) of another man, who is still a virgin living in her father's house, and gets caught in the act, this man shall be put to death, but the wife is blameless.
137. If a man wishes to separate from a woman who has borne him children, or from his wife who has borne him children, then he shall give that wife her dowry, and a part of the field, garden, and property, so that she can rear her children. When she has brought up her children, a portion of all that is given to the children, equal as that of one son, shall be given to her. She may then marry the man of her heart.
138. If a man wishes to separate from his wife who has borne him no children, he shall give her the amount of her purchase money and the dowry which she brought from her father's house, and let her go.
141. If a man's wife, who lives in his house, wishes to leave to engage in business, plunging them into debt, trying to ruin her house, and neglecting her husband, and is judicially convicted, if her husband wants a divorce, she may go on her way, and he gives her nothing as a gift of release. If her husband does not wish to release her, and instead chooses to take another wife, the first wife shall remain as servant in her husband's house.
142. If a woman quarrel with her husband, and say: "You are not congenial to me," the reasons for her prejudice must be presented. If she is guiltless, and there is no fault on her part, but he leaves and neglects her, then no guilt attaches to this woman, she shall take her dowry and go back to her father's house.
143. If she is not innocent, but leaves her husband, and ruins her house, neglecting her husband, this woman shall be cast into the water.
Questions:
Based on these laws, was it easy for women to get a divorce? Explain.
128. If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her or does not draw up a marriage contract, this woman is no wife to him.
130. If a man violates the wife (betrothed or child-wife) of another man, who is still a virgin living in her father's house, and gets caught in the act, this man shall be put to death, but the wife is blameless.
137. If a man wishes to separate from a woman who has borne him children, or from his wife who has borne him children, then he shall give that wife her dowry, and a part of the field, garden, and property, so that she can rear her children. When she has brought up her children, a portion of all that is given to the children, equal as that of one son, shall be given to her. She may then marry the man of her heart.
138. If a man wishes to separate from his wife who has borne him no children, he shall give her the amount of her purchase money and the dowry which she brought from her father's house, and let her go.
141. If a man's wife, who lives in his house, wishes to leave to engage in business, plunging them into debt, trying to ruin her house, and neglecting her husband, and is judicially convicted, if her husband wants a divorce, she may go on her way, and he gives her nothing as a gift of release. If her husband does not wish to release her, and instead chooses to take another wife, the first wife shall remain as servant in her husband's house.
142. If a woman quarrel with her husband, and say: "You are not congenial to me," the reasons for her prejudice must be presented. If she is guiltless, and there is no fault on her part, but he leaves and neglects her, then no guilt attaches to this woman, she shall take her dowry and go back to her father's house.
143. If she is not innocent, but leaves her husband, and ruins her house, neglecting her husband, this woman shall be cast into the water.
Questions:
Based on these laws, was it easy for women to get a divorce? Explain.
Hammurabi's Code: Status
Hammurabi’s Code code was a compilation of almost three hundred laws on every aspect of life placed on stones throughout the region. These laws were likely compiled from standing traditions, not new laws. It is difficult to know how well enforced these laws were, but they were clearly recorded by a powerful King, Hammurabi, who believed a unified legal code would create a more stable society.
144. If a man takes a wife and this wife gives her husband a maid-servant for the purpose of bearing children, which she is herself unable to provide, and the maidservant then bears him children, but this man wishes to take another wife, this shall not be permitted; he shall not be allowed to take a second wife.
145. If a man takes a wife, and she bears him no children, and he intends to take another wife: if he takes this second wife, and brings her into the house, this second wife shall not be allowed equality with his first wife.
146. If a man takes a wife and she gives this man a maid-servant as a childbearer and the maid-servant does bear him children, then this maid assumes equality with the wife; because she has borne him children, her master shall not sell her for money, but he may keep her as a slave, reckoning her among the maid-servants.
147. If she has not borne him children, then her mistress may sell her for money.
Questions:
Based on these laws, which women held the most value in a family?
144. If a man takes a wife and this wife gives her husband a maid-servant for the purpose of bearing children, which she is herself unable to provide, and the maidservant then bears him children, but this man wishes to take another wife, this shall not be permitted; he shall not be allowed to take a second wife.
145. If a man takes a wife, and she bears him no children, and he intends to take another wife: if he takes this second wife, and brings her into the house, this second wife shall not be allowed equality with his first wife.
146. If a man takes a wife and she gives this man a maid-servant as a childbearer and the maid-servant does bear him children, then this maid assumes equality with the wife; because she has borne him children, her master shall not sell her for money, but he may keep her as a slave, reckoning her among the maid-servants.
147. If she has not borne him children, then her mistress may sell her for money.
Questions:
Based on these laws, which women held the most value in a family?
Hammurabi's Code: Class
Hammurabi’s Code code was a compilation of almost three hundred laws on every aspect of life placed on stones throughout the region. These laws were likely compiled from standing traditions, not new laws. It is difficult to know how well enforced these laws were, but they were clearly recorded by a powerful King, Hammurabi, who believed a unified legal code would create a more stable society.
209. If a man strikes a free-born woman so that she loses her unborn child, he shall pay ten shekels for her loss.
210. If the woman dies, his daughter shall be put to death.
211. If a woman of the free class loses her child by a blow, he shall pay five shekels in money.
Questions:
209. If a man strikes a free-born woman so that she loses her unborn child, he shall pay ten shekels for her loss.
210. If the woman dies, his daughter shall be put to death.
211. If a woman of the free class loses her child by a blow, he shall pay five shekels in money.
Questions:
- Based on these laws, which women were most valued in society?
- Where did a fetus rank in this society?
The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet I: Part 1
The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient series of tablets following the life of Gilgamesh, the semi-mythical King of Uruk, Mesopotamia. The epic opens on a young Gilgamesh terrorizing his citizens. Hearing the people’s pleas, god Aruru creates Enkidu, a rival for Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh sends Enkidu a prostitute names Shamhat who turns him into a civilized man. After a great fight in the streets of Uruk, Enkidu and GIlgamesh become friends. Soon after, Ishtar (the goddess of sex and war) asks Gilgamesh to have sex and marry her. Ishtar becomes furious when Gilgamesh rejects her and lets loose the Bull of Heaven in Uruk, causing hundreds of deaths. Enkidu kills the bull and all is well, that is until the gods kill Enkidu. After this point, Gilgamesh embarks on a quest for immortality. He attempts to find Utnapishtim, the only immortal human. Siduri, a tavern keeper, tells Gilgamesh to find a ferryman to take him to Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim tells him that the gods granted him and his wife immortality after the gods instructed him to build a boat and survive the great flood. He does tell Gilgamesh to look for a magic rejuvenation plant but this gets stolen by a snake. The epic ends with Gilgamesh admiring the beauty of Uruk and realizing that the city will be his legacy, with this he makes peace with death.
The following document is from the first tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh and introduces readers to their protagonist.
He who has seen everything, I will make known (?) to the lands.I will teach (?) about him who experienced all things, ... alike, Anu granted him the totality of knowledge of all. He saw the Secret, discovered the Hidden, he brought information of (the time) before the Flood. He went on a distant journey, pushing himself to exhaustion, but then was brought to peace. He carved on a stone stela all of his toils,and built the wall of Uruk-Haven,the wall of the sacred Eanna Temple, the holy sanctuary. Look at its wall which gleams like copper(?),inspect its inner wall, the likes of which no one can equal! Take hold of the threshold stone--it dates from ancient times! Go close to the Eanna Temple, the residence of Ishtar, such as no later king or man ever equaled! Go up on the wall of Uruk and walk around, examine its foundation, inspect its brickwork thoroughly. Is not (even the core of) the brick structure made of kiln-fired brick, and did not the Seven Sages themselves lay out its plans? One league city, one league palm gardens, one league lowlands, the open area(?) of the Ishtar Temple, three leagues and the open area(?) of Uruk it (the wall) encloses. Find the copper tablet box, open the ... of its lock of bronze, undo the fastening of its secret opening.Take and read out from the lapis lazuli tablet how Gilgamesh went through every hardship.
Supreme over other kings, lordly in appearance, he is the hero, born of Uruk, the goring wild bull. He walks out in front, the leader, and walks at the rear, trusted by his companions… Gilgamesh is strong to perfection, son of the august cow, Rimat-Ninsun;... Gilgamesh is awesome to perfection. It was he who opened the mountain passes,who dug wells on the flank of the mountain. It was he who crossed the ocean, the vast seas, to the rising sun, who explored the world regions, seeking life. It was he who reached by his own sheer strength Utanapishtim, the Faraway, who restored the sanctuaries (or: cities) that the Flood had destroyed! ... for teeming mankind. Who can compare with him in kingliness? Who can say like Gilgamesh: "I am King!"?... Two-thirds of him is god, one-third of him is human. The Great Goddess [Aruru] designed(?) the model for his body, she prepared his form ... beautiful, handsomest of men, ... perfect.
He walks around in the enclosure of Uruk, Like a wild bull he makes himself mighty, head raised (over others). There is no rival who can raise his weapon against him. His fellows stand (at the alert), attentive to his (orders ?), and the men of Uruk become anxious in … Gilgamesh does not leave a son to his father, day and night he arrogant[y(?) … [The following lines are interpreted as rhetorical, perhaps spoken by the oppressed citizens of Uruk.] Is Gilgamesh the shepherd of Uruk-Haven, is he the shepherd. … bold, eminent, knowing, and wise! Gilgamesh does not leave a girl to her mother(?) The daughter of the warrior, the bride of the young man, the gods kept hearing their complaints, so the gods of the heavens implored the Lord of Uruk [Anu]
Anu listened to their complaints, and (the gods) called out to Aruru: "it was you, Aruru, who created mankind(?), now create a zikru to it/him.Let him be equal to his (Gilgamesh's) stormy heart, let them be a match for each other so that Uruk may find peace!"
The Epic of Gilgamesh, Retrieved from http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/.
Questions:
The following document is from the first tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh and introduces readers to their protagonist.
He who has seen everything, I will make known (?) to the lands.I will teach (?) about him who experienced all things, ... alike, Anu granted him the totality of knowledge of all. He saw the Secret, discovered the Hidden, he brought information of (the time) before the Flood. He went on a distant journey, pushing himself to exhaustion, but then was brought to peace. He carved on a stone stela all of his toils,and built the wall of Uruk-Haven,the wall of the sacred Eanna Temple, the holy sanctuary. Look at its wall which gleams like copper(?),inspect its inner wall, the likes of which no one can equal! Take hold of the threshold stone--it dates from ancient times! Go close to the Eanna Temple, the residence of Ishtar, such as no later king or man ever equaled! Go up on the wall of Uruk and walk around, examine its foundation, inspect its brickwork thoroughly. Is not (even the core of) the brick structure made of kiln-fired brick, and did not the Seven Sages themselves lay out its plans? One league city, one league palm gardens, one league lowlands, the open area(?) of the Ishtar Temple, three leagues and the open area(?) of Uruk it (the wall) encloses. Find the copper tablet box, open the ... of its lock of bronze, undo the fastening of its secret opening.Take and read out from the lapis lazuli tablet how Gilgamesh went through every hardship.
Supreme over other kings, lordly in appearance, he is the hero, born of Uruk, the goring wild bull. He walks out in front, the leader, and walks at the rear, trusted by his companions… Gilgamesh is strong to perfection, son of the august cow, Rimat-Ninsun;... Gilgamesh is awesome to perfection. It was he who opened the mountain passes,who dug wells on the flank of the mountain. It was he who crossed the ocean, the vast seas, to the rising sun, who explored the world regions, seeking life. It was he who reached by his own sheer strength Utanapishtim, the Faraway, who restored the sanctuaries (or: cities) that the Flood had destroyed! ... for teeming mankind. Who can compare with him in kingliness? Who can say like Gilgamesh: "I am King!"?... Two-thirds of him is god, one-third of him is human. The Great Goddess [Aruru] designed(?) the model for his body, she prepared his form ... beautiful, handsomest of men, ... perfect.
He walks around in the enclosure of Uruk, Like a wild bull he makes himself mighty, head raised (over others). There is no rival who can raise his weapon against him. His fellows stand (at the alert), attentive to his (orders ?), and the men of Uruk become anxious in … Gilgamesh does not leave a son to his father, day and night he arrogant[y(?) … [The following lines are interpreted as rhetorical, perhaps spoken by the oppressed citizens of Uruk.] Is Gilgamesh the shepherd of Uruk-Haven, is he the shepherd. … bold, eminent, knowing, and wise! Gilgamesh does not leave a girl to her mother(?) The daughter of the warrior, the bride of the young man, the gods kept hearing their complaints, so the gods of the heavens implored the Lord of Uruk [Anu]
Anu listened to their complaints, and (the gods) called out to Aruru: "it was you, Aruru, who created mankind(?), now create a zikru to it/him.Let him be equal to his (Gilgamesh's) stormy heart, let them be a match for each other so that Uruk may find peace!"
The Epic of Gilgamesh, Retrieved from http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/.
Questions:
- Can you identify any parts of this passages that comment on gender roles?
- In the text, underline all the adjectives describing Gilgamesh. What can we conclude from these words about how the Epic presents masculinity?
The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet I: Part 2
The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient series of tablets following the life of Gilgamesh, the semi-mythical King of Uruk, Mesopotamia. The epic opens on a young Gilgamesh terrorizing his citizens. Hearing the people’s pleas, god Aruru creates Enkidu, a rival for Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh sends Enkidu a prostitute names Shamhat who turns him into a civilized man. After a great fight in the streets of Uruk, Enkidu and GIlgamesh become friends. Soon after, Ishtar (the goddess of sex and war) asks Gilgamesh to have sex and marry her. Ishtar becomes furious when Gilgamesh rejects her and lets loose the Bull of Heaven in Uruk, causing hundreds of deaths. Enkidu kills the bull and all is well, that is until the gods kill Enkidu. After this point, Gilgamesh embarks on a quest for immortality. He attempts to find Utnapishtim, the only immortal human. Siduri, a tavern keeper, tells Gilgamesh to find a ferryman to take him to Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim tells him that the gods granted him and his wife immortality after the gods instructed him to build a boat and survive the great flood. He does tell Gilgamesh to look for a magic rejuvenation plant but this gets stolen by a snake. The epic ends with Gilgamesh admiring the beauty of Uruk and realizing that the city will be his legacy, with this he makes peace with death.
This document, also from Tablet I of the epic, introduces us to Gilgamesh’s mother, Ninsun. In the extract, Gilgamesh consults his mother for advice after having vivid dreams.
Gilgamesh got up and revealed the dream, saying to his mother:"Mother, I had a dream last night.Stars of the sky appeared,and some kind of meteorite(?) of Anu fell next to me. I tried to lift it but it was too mighty for me,I tried to turn it over but I could not budge it. The Land of Uruk was standing around it,the whole land had assembled about it,the populace was thronging around it,the Men clustered about it,and kissed its feet as if it were a little baby (!). I loved it and embraced it as a wife.I laid it down at your feet,and you made it compete with me." The mother of Gilgamesh, the wise, all-knowing, said to her Lord;Rimat-Ninsun, the wise, all-knowing, said to Gilgamesh: "As for the stars of the sky that appeared and the meteorite(?) of Anu which fell next to you,you tried to lift but it was too mighty for you,you tried to turn it over but were unable to budge it,you laid it down at my feet,and I made it compete with you,and you loved and embraced it as a wife." "There will come to you a mighty man, a comrade who saves his friend--he is the mightiest in the land, he is strongest,his strength is mighty as the meteorite(!) of Anu! You loved him and embraced him as a wife;and it is he who will repeatedly save you.Your dream is good and propitious!"A second time Gilgamesh said to his mother: "Mother, I have had another dream: "At the gate of my marital chamber there lay an axe,"and people had collected about it."The Land of Uruk was standing around it, "the whole land had assembled about it,"the populace was thronging around it."I laid it down at your feet, "I loved it and embraced it as a wife, "and you made it compete with me."The mother of Gilgamesh, the wise, all-knowing, said to her son; Rimat-Ninsun, the wise, all-knowing, said to Gilgamesh: ""The axe that you saw (is) a man."... (that) you love him and embrace as a wife, "but (that) I have compete with you."" "There will come to you a mighty man,"" a comrade who saves his friend– "he is the mightiest in the land, he is strongest, "he is as mighty as the meteorite(!) of Anu!" Gilgamesh spoke to his mother saying: " "By the command of Enlil, the Great Counselor, so may it to pass!" May I have a friend and adviser, a friend and adviser may I have! "You have interpreted for me the dreams about him!" After the harlot recounted the dreams of Gilgamesh to Enkidu the two of them made love.
The Epic of Gilgamesh, Retrieved from http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/.
Questions:
This document, also from Tablet I of the epic, introduces us to Gilgamesh’s mother, Ninsun. In the extract, Gilgamesh consults his mother for advice after having vivid dreams.
Gilgamesh got up and revealed the dream, saying to his mother:"Mother, I had a dream last night.Stars of the sky appeared,and some kind of meteorite(?) of Anu fell next to me. I tried to lift it but it was too mighty for me,I tried to turn it over but I could not budge it. The Land of Uruk was standing around it,the whole land had assembled about it,the populace was thronging around it,the Men clustered about it,and kissed its feet as if it were a little baby (!). I loved it and embraced it as a wife.I laid it down at your feet,and you made it compete with me." The mother of Gilgamesh, the wise, all-knowing, said to her Lord;Rimat-Ninsun, the wise, all-knowing, said to Gilgamesh: "As for the stars of the sky that appeared and the meteorite(?) of Anu which fell next to you,you tried to lift but it was too mighty for you,you tried to turn it over but were unable to budge it,you laid it down at my feet,and I made it compete with you,and you loved and embraced it as a wife." "There will come to you a mighty man, a comrade who saves his friend--he is the mightiest in the land, he is strongest,his strength is mighty as the meteorite(!) of Anu! You loved him and embraced him as a wife;and it is he who will repeatedly save you.Your dream is good and propitious!"A second time Gilgamesh said to his mother: "Mother, I have had another dream: "At the gate of my marital chamber there lay an axe,"and people had collected about it."The Land of Uruk was standing around it, "the whole land had assembled about it,"the populace was thronging around it."I laid it down at your feet, "I loved it and embraced it as a wife, "and you made it compete with me."The mother of Gilgamesh, the wise, all-knowing, said to her son; Rimat-Ninsun, the wise, all-knowing, said to Gilgamesh: ""The axe that you saw (is) a man."... (that) you love him and embrace as a wife, "but (that) I have compete with you."" "There will come to you a mighty man,"" a comrade who saves his friend– "he is the mightiest in the land, he is strongest, "he is as mighty as the meteorite(!) of Anu!" Gilgamesh spoke to his mother saying: " "By the command of Enlil, the Great Counselor, so may it to pass!" May I have a friend and adviser, a friend and adviser may I have! "You have interpreted for me the dreams about him!" After the harlot recounted the dreams of Gilgamesh to Enkidu the two of them made love.
The Epic of Gilgamesh, Retrieved from http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/.
Questions:
- How is masculinity described in this passage??
- How is Gilgamesh’s mother, Ninsun, characterized and described in this segment?
- In the text, underline all the adjectives describing Ninsun. What can we conclude from these words about how the Epic presents femininity?
The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet I: Part 3
The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient series of tablets following the life of Gilgamesh, the semi-mythical King of Uruk, Mesopotamia. The epic opens on a young Gilgamesh terrorizing his citizens. Hearing the people’s pleas, god Aruru creates Enkidu, a rival for Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh sends Enkidu a prostitute names Shamhat who turns him into a civilized man. After a great fight in the streets of Uruk, Enkidu and GIlgamesh become friends. Soon after, Ishtar (the goddess of sex and war) asks Gilgamesh to have sex and marry her. Ishtar becomes furious when Gilgamesh rejects her and lets loose the Bull of Heaven in Uruk, causing hundreds of deaths. Enkidu kills the bull and all is well, that is until the gods kill Enkidu. After this point, Gilgamesh embarks on a quest for immortality. He attempts to find Utnapishtim, the only immortal human. Siduri, a tavern keeper, tells Gilgamesh to find a ferryman to take him to Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim tells him that the gods granted him and his wife immortality after the gods instructed him to build a boat and survive the great flood. He does tell Gilgamesh to look for a magic rejuvenation plant but this gets stolen by a snake. The epic ends with Gilgamesh admiring the beauty of Uruk and realizing that the city will be his legacy, with this he makes peace with death.
This section introduces Shamhat. Shamhat is the prostitute who transformed Enkidu into a civilized being in the Epic.
Gilgamesh said to the trapper: "Go, trapper, bring the harlot, Shamhat, with you.When the animals are drinking at the watering place have her take off her robe and expose her sex. When he sees her he will draw near to her, and his animals, who grew up in his wilderness, will be alien to him."
The trapper went, bringing the harlot, Shamhat, with him. They set off on the journey, making direct way. On the third day they arrived at the appointed place, and the trapper and the harlot sat down at their posts(?). A first day and a second they sat opposite the watering hole. The animals arrived and drank at the watering hole, the wild beasts arrived and slaked their thirst with water. Then he, Enkidu, offspring of the mountains, who eats grasses with the gazelles, came to drink at the watering hole with the animals, with the wild beasts he slaked his thirst with water. Then Shamhat saw him--a primitive, a savage fellow from the depths of the wilderness! "That is he, Shamhat! Release your clenched arms, expose your sex so he can take in your voluptuousness. Do not be restrained--take his energy! When he sees you he will draw near to you. Spread out your robe so he can lie upon you, and perform for this primitive the task of womankind! His animals, who grew up in his wilderness, will become alien to him, and his lust will groan over you." Shamhat unclutched her bosom, exposed her sex, and he took in her voluptuousness. She was not restrained, but took his energy. She spread out her robe and he lay upon her, she performed for the primitive the task of womankind. His lust groaned over her; for six days and seven nights Enkidu stayed aroused, and had intercourse with the harlot until he was sated with her charms. But when he turned his attention to his animals, the gazelles saw Enkidu and darted off, the wild animals distanced themselves from his body. Enkidu ... his utterly depleted(?) body, his knees that wanted to go off with his animals went rigid; Enkidu was diminished, his running was not as before. But then he drew himself up, for his understanding had broadened. Turning around, he sat down at the harlot's feet, gazing into her face, his ears attentive as the harlot spoke. The harlot said to Enkidu: "You are beautiful," Enkidu, you are become like a god. Why do you gallop around the wilderness with the wild beasts? Come, let me bring you into Uruk-Haven, to the Holy Temple, the residence of Anu and Ishtar, the place of Gilgamesh, who is wise to perfection, but who struts his power over the people like a wild bull." What she kept saying found favor with him. Becoming aware of himself, he sought a friend. Enkidu spoke to the harlot: "Come, Shamhat, take me away with you to the sacred Holy Temple, the residence of Anu and Ishtar, the place of Gilgamesh, who is wise to perfection, but who struts his power over the people like a wild bull. I will challenge him … Let me shout out in Uruk: I am the mighty one!' Lead me in and I will change the order of things; he whose strength is mightiest is the one born in the wilderness!" [Shamhat to Enkidu:] "Come, let us go, so he may see your face. I will lead you to Gilgamesh…a man of extreme feelings (!). Look at him, gaze at his face– he is a handsome youth, with freshness(!)... It is Gilgamesh whom Shamhat loves, and Anu, Enlil, and La have enlarged his mind."
The Epic of Gilgamesh, Retrieved from http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/.
Questions:
This section introduces Shamhat. Shamhat is the prostitute who transformed Enkidu into a civilized being in the Epic.
Gilgamesh said to the trapper: "Go, trapper, bring the harlot, Shamhat, with you.When the animals are drinking at the watering place have her take off her robe and expose her sex. When he sees her he will draw near to her, and his animals, who grew up in his wilderness, will be alien to him."
The trapper went, bringing the harlot, Shamhat, with him. They set off on the journey, making direct way. On the third day they arrived at the appointed place, and the trapper and the harlot sat down at their posts(?). A first day and a second they sat opposite the watering hole. The animals arrived and drank at the watering hole, the wild beasts arrived and slaked their thirst with water. Then he, Enkidu, offspring of the mountains, who eats grasses with the gazelles, came to drink at the watering hole with the animals, with the wild beasts he slaked his thirst with water. Then Shamhat saw him--a primitive, a savage fellow from the depths of the wilderness! "That is he, Shamhat! Release your clenched arms, expose your sex so he can take in your voluptuousness. Do not be restrained--take his energy! When he sees you he will draw near to you. Spread out your robe so he can lie upon you, and perform for this primitive the task of womankind! His animals, who grew up in his wilderness, will become alien to him, and his lust will groan over you." Shamhat unclutched her bosom, exposed her sex, and he took in her voluptuousness. She was not restrained, but took his energy. She spread out her robe and he lay upon her, she performed for the primitive the task of womankind. His lust groaned over her; for six days and seven nights Enkidu stayed aroused, and had intercourse with the harlot until he was sated with her charms. But when he turned his attention to his animals, the gazelles saw Enkidu and darted off, the wild animals distanced themselves from his body. Enkidu ... his utterly depleted(?) body, his knees that wanted to go off with his animals went rigid; Enkidu was diminished, his running was not as before. But then he drew himself up, for his understanding had broadened. Turning around, he sat down at the harlot's feet, gazing into her face, his ears attentive as the harlot spoke. The harlot said to Enkidu: "You are beautiful," Enkidu, you are become like a god. Why do you gallop around the wilderness with the wild beasts? Come, let me bring you into Uruk-Haven, to the Holy Temple, the residence of Anu and Ishtar, the place of Gilgamesh, who is wise to perfection, but who struts his power over the people like a wild bull." What she kept saying found favor with him. Becoming aware of himself, he sought a friend. Enkidu spoke to the harlot: "Come, Shamhat, take me away with you to the sacred Holy Temple, the residence of Anu and Ishtar, the place of Gilgamesh, who is wise to perfection, but who struts his power over the people like a wild bull. I will challenge him … Let me shout out in Uruk: I am the mighty one!' Lead me in and I will change the order of things; he whose strength is mightiest is the one born in the wilderness!" [Shamhat to Enkidu:] "Come, let us go, so he may see your face. I will lead you to Gilgamesh…a man of extreme feelings (!). Look at him, gaze at his face– he is a handsome youth, with freshness(!)... It is Gilgamesh whom Shamhat loves, and Anu, Enlil, and La have enlarged his mind."
The Epic of Gilgamesh, Retrieved from http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/.
Questions:
- Is Shamhat represented in a positive or negative manner?
- What can we conclude about gender expectations from the relationship between Shamhat and Enkidu?
The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet VI
The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient series of tablets following the life of Gilgamesh, the semi-mythical King of Uruk, Mesopotamia. The epic opens on a young Gilgamesh terrorizing his citizens. Hearing the people’s pleas, god Aruru creates Enkidu, a rival for Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh sends Enkidu a prostitute names Shamhat who turns him into a civilized man. After a great fight in the streets of Uruk, Enkidu and GIlgamesh become friends. Soon after, Ishtar (the goddess of sex and war) asks Gilgamesh to have sex and marry her. Ishtar becomes furious when Gilgamesh rejects her and lets loose the Bull of Heaven in Uruk, causing hundreds of deaths. Enkidu kills the bull and all is well, that is until the gods kill Enkidu. After this point, Gilgamesh embarks on a quest for immortality. He attempts to find Utnapishtim, the only immortal human. Siduri, a tavern keeper, tells Gilgamesh to find a ferryman to take him to Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim tells him that the gods granted him and his wife immortality after the gods instructed him to build a boat and survive the great flood. He does tell Gilgamesh to look for a magic rejuvenation plant but this gets stolen by a snake. The epic ends with Gilgamesh admiring the beauty of Uruk and realizing that the city will be his legacy, with this he makes peace with death.
This extract introduces Ishtar, the goddess of love and war. Ishtar pleads with Gilgamesh to be her husband, offering him riches in return. Gilgamesh, however, refuses and recounts her previous lovers who she cast aside. In return, Ishtar takes the Bull of Heaven from her parents and unleashes the bull on the city of Uruk killing hundreds of men. Enkidu and Gilgamesh fight and kill the Bull. With this, Ishtar curses the pair.
When Gilgamesh placed his crown on his head, a princess Ishtar raised her eyes to the beauty of Gilgamesh. "Come along, Gilgamesh, be you my husband, to me grant your lusciousness.' Be you my husband, and I will be your wife. I will have harnessed for you a chariot of lapis lazuli and gold, with wheels of gold and 'horns' of electrum(?). It will be harnessed with great storming mountain mules! Come into our house, with the fragrance of cedar. And when you come into our house the doorpost(?) and throne dais(?)'will kiss your feet. Bowed down beneath you will be kings, lords, and princes.
The Lullubu people' will bring you the produce of the mountains and countryside as tribute. Your she-goats will bear triplets, your ewes twins, your donkey under burden will overtake the mule, your steed at the chariot will be bristling to gallop, your ax at the yoke will have no match."
Gilgamesh addressed Princess Ishtar saying: "What would I have to give you if I married you! Do you need oil or garments for your body! Do you lack anything for food or drink! I would gladly feed you food fit for a god, I would gladly give you wine fit for a king,... Where are your bridegrooms that you keep forever' Where is your 'Little Shepherd' bird that went up over you! See here now, I will recite the list of your lovers. Of the shoulder (?) ... his hand, Tammuz, the lover of your earliest youth, for him you have ordained lamentations year upon year. You loved the colorful 'Little Shepherd' bird and then hit him, breaking his wing, so now he stands in the forest crying 'My Wing'! You loved the supremely mighty lion, yet you dug for him seven and again seven pits. You loved the stallion, famed in battle, yet you ordained for him the whip, the goad, and the lash, ordained for him to gallop for seven and seven hours, ordained for him drinking from muddled waters,' you ordained far his mother Silili to wail continually. You loved the Shepherd, the Master Herder, who continually presented you with bread baked in embers, and who daily slaughtered for you a kid. Yet you struck him, and turned him into a wolf, so his own shepherds now chase him and his own dogs snap at his shins. You loved Ishullanu, your father's date gardener, who continually brought you baskets of dates, and brightened your table daily. You raised your eyes to him, and you went to him: 'Oh my Ishullanu, let us taste of your strength, stretch out your hand to me, and touch our vulva. Ishullanu said to you: 'Me! What is it you want from me! Has my mother not baked, and have I not eaten that I should now eat food under contempt and curses and that alfalfa grass should be my only cover against the cold? As you listened to these his words you struck him, turning him into a dwarf(?), and made him live in the middle of his (garden of) labors, where the mihhu do not go up, nor the bucket of dates (?) down. And now me! It is me you love, and you will ordain for me as
for them!"
When Ishtar heard this, in a fury she went up to the heavens, going to Anu, her father, and crying, going to Anrum, her mother, and weeping: "Father, Gilgamesh has insulted me over and over, Gilgamesh has recounted despicable deeds about me, despicable deeds and curses!" Anu addressed Princess Ishtar, saying: "What is the matter? Was it not you who provoked King Gilgamesh? So Gilgamesh recounted despicable deeds about you, despicable deeds and curses!" Ishtar spoke to her father, Anu, saying: "Father, give me the Bull of Heaven, so he can kill Gilgamesh in his dwelling. If you do not give me the Bull of Heaven, I will knock down the Gates of the Netherworld, I will smash the door posts, and leave the doors flat down, and will let the dead go up to eat the living! And the dead will outnumber the living!"…
Ishtar led the Bull of Heaven down to the earth. When it reached Uruk It climbed down to the Euphrates… At the snort of the Bull of Heaven a huge pit opened up, and 100 Young Men of Uruk fell in. At his second snort a huge pit opened up, and 200 Young Men of Uruk fell in. At his third snort a huge pit opened up, and Enkidu fell in up to his waist. Then Enkidu jumped out and seized the Bull of Heaven by its horns. the Bull spewed his spittle in front of him, with his thick tail he flung his dung behind him (?). Enkidu addressed Gilgamesh, saying: "My friend, we can be bold(?) ...Between the nape, the horns, and... he thrust his sword. After they had killed the Bull of Heaven, they ripped out its heart and presented it to Shamash. They withdrew bowing down humbly to Shamash. Then the brothers sat down together. Ishtar went up onto the top of the Wall of Uruk-Haven, cast herself into the pose of mourning, and hurled her woeful curse: "Woe unto Gilgamesh who slandered me and killed the Bull of Heaven!" When Enkidu heard this pronouncement of Ishtar, he wrenched off the Bull's hindquarter and flung it in her face: "If I could only get at you I would do the same to you! I would drape his innards over your arms!" Ishtar assembled the (cultic women) of lovely-locks, joy-girls, and harlots, and set them to mourning over the hindquarter of the Bull.
The Epic of Gilgamesh, Retrieved from http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/.
Questions:
This extract introduces Ishtar, the goddess of love and war. Ishtar pleads with Gilgamesh to be her husband, offering him riches in return. Gilgamesh, however, refuses and recounts her previous lovers who she cast aside. In return, Ishtar takes the Bull of Heaven from her parents and unleashes the bull on the city of Uruk killing hundreds of men. Enkidu and Gilgamesh fight and kill the Bull. With this, Ishtar curses the pair.
When Gilgamesh placed his crown on his head, a princess Ishtar raised her eyes to the beauty of Gilgamesh. "Come along, Gilgamesh, be you my husband, to me grant your lusciousness.' Be you my husband, and I will be your wife. I will have harnessed for you a chariot of lapis lazuli and gold, with wheels of gold and 'horns' of electrum(?). It will be harnessed with great storming mountain mules! Come into our house, with the fragrance of cedar. And when you come into our house the doorpost(?) and throne dais(?)'will kiss your feet. Bowed down beneath you will be kings, lords, and princes.
The Lullubu people' will bring you the produce of the mountains and countryside as tribute. Your she-goats will bear triplets, your ewes twins, your donkey under burden will overtake the mule, your steed at the chariot will be bristling to gallop, your ax at the yoke will have no match."
Gilgamesh addressed Princess Ishtar saying: "What would I have to give you if I married you! Do you need oil or garments for your body! Do you lack anything for food or drink! I would gladly feed you food fit for a god, I would gladly give you wine fit for a king,... Where are your bridegrooms that you keep forever' Where is your 'Little Shepherd' bird that went up over you! See here now, I will recite the list of your lovers. Of the shoulder (?) ... his hand, Tammuz, the lover of your earliest youth, for him you have ordained lamentations year upon year. You loved the colorful 'Little Shepherd' bird and then hit him, breaking his wing, so now he stands in the forest crying 'My Wing'! You loved the supremely mighty lion, yet you dug for him seven and again seven pits. You loved the stallion, famed in battle, yet you ordained for him the whip, the goad, and the lash, ordained for him to gallop for seven and seven hours, ordained for him drinking from muddled waters,' you ordained far his mother Silili to wail continually. You loved the Shepherd, the Master Herder, who continually presented you with bread baked in embers, and who daily slaughtered for you a kid. Yet you struck him, and turned him into a wolf, so his own shepherds now chase him and his own dogs snap at his shins. You loved Ishullanu, your father's date gardener, who continually brought you baskets of dates, and brightened your table daily. You raised your eyes to him, and you went to him: 'Oh my Ishullanu, let us taste of your strength, stretch out your hand to me, and touch our vulva. Ishullanu said to you: 'Me! What is it you want from me! Has my mother not baked, and have I not eaten that I should now eat food under contempt and curses and that alfalfa grass should be my only cover against the cold? As you listened to these his words you struck him, turning him into a dwarf(?), and made him live in the middle of his (garden of) labors, where the mihhu do not go up, nor the bucket of dates (?) down. And now me! It is me you love, and you will ordain for me as
for them!"
When Ishtar heard this, in a fury she went up to the heavens, going to Anu, her father, and crying, going to Anrum, her mother, and weeping: "Father, Gilgamesh has insulted me over and over, Gilgamesh has recounted despicable deeds about me, despicable deeds and curses!" Anu addressed Princess Ishtar, saying: "What is the matter? Was it not you who provoked King Gilgamesh? So Gilgamesh recounted despicable deeds about you, despicable deeds and curses!" Ishtar spoke to her father, Anu, saying: "Father, give me the Bull of Heaven, so he can kill Gilgamesh in his dwelling. If you do not give me the Bull of Heaven, I will knock down the Gates of the Netherworld, I will smash the door posts, and leave the doors flat down, and will let the dead go up to eat the living! And the dead will outnumber the living!"…
Ishtar led the Bull of Heaven down to the earth. When it reached Uruk It climbed down to the Euphrates… At the snort of the Bull of Heaven a huge pit opened up, and 100 Young Men of Uruk fell in. At his second snort a huge pit opened up, and 200 Young Men of Uruk fell in. At his third snort a huge pit opened up, and Enkidu fell in up to his waist. Then Enkidu jumped out and seized the Bull of Heaven by its horns. the Bull spewed his spittle in front of him, with his thick tail he flung his dung behind him (?). Enkidu addressed Gilgamesh, saying: "My friend, we can be bold(?) ...Between the nape, the horns, and... he thrust his sword. After they had killed the Bull of Heaven, they ripped out its heart and presented it to Shamash. They withdrew bowing down humbly to Shamash. Then the brothers sat down together. Ishtar went up onto the top of the Wall of Uruk-Haven, cast herself into the pose of mourning, and hurled her woeful curse: "Woe unto Gilgamesh who slandered me and killed the Bull of Heaven!" When Enkidu heard this pronouncement of Ishtar, he wrenched off the Bull's hindquarter and flung it in her face: "If I could only get at you I would do the same to you! I would drape his innards over your arms!" Ishtar assembled the (cultic women) of lovely-locks, joy-girls, and harlots, and set them to mourning over the hindquarter of the Bull.
The Epic of Gilgamesh, Retrieved from http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/.
Questions:
- What words were used to describe Ishtar? What can this tell us about gender norms in Ancient Mesopotamia?
- How does the description of Ishtar compare with that of Gilgamesh?
- How does this passage show expected gender roles?
Kojiki: Record of Ancient Things
This story is from the Kojiki, the Japanese "Record of Ancient Things". This story was among many that were recorded between 500-700CE to preserve the ancient traditions. The following story is the closest to a creation story there is in this text.
When heaven and earth began, three deities came into being, The Spirit Master of the Center of Heaven, The August Wondrously Producing Spirit, and the Divine Wondrously Producing Ancestor. These three were invisible. The earth was young then, and land floated like oil, and from it reed shoots sprouted. From these reeds came two more deities. After them, five or six pairs of deities came into being, and the last of these were Izanagi and Izanami, whose names mean "The Male Who Invites" and "The Female who Invites".
The first five deities commanded Izanagi and Izanami to make and solidify the land of Japan, and they gave the young pair a jeweled spear. Standing on the Floating Bridge of Heaven, they dipped it in the ocean brine and stirred. They pulled out the spear, and the brine that dripped of it formed an island to which they descended. On this island they built a palace for their wedding and a great column to the heavens.
Izanami examined her body and found that one place had not grown, and she told this to Izanagi, who replied that his body was well-formed but that one place had grown to excess. He proposed that he place his excess in her place that was not complete and that in doing so they would make new land. They agreed to walk around the pillar and meet behind it to do this. When they arrive behind the pillar, she greeted him by saying "What a fine young man", and he responded by greeting her with "What a fine young woman". They procreated and gave birth to a leech-child, which they put in a basket and let float away. Then they gave birth to a floating island, which likewise they did not recognize as one of their children.
Disappointed by their failures in procreation, they returned to Heaven and consulted the deities there. The deities explained that the cause of their difficulties was that the female had spoken first when they met to procreate. Izanagi and Izanami returned to their island and again met behind the heavenly pillar. When they met, he said, "What a fine young woman," and she said "What a fine young man". They mated and gave birth to the eight main islands of Japan and six minor islands. Then they gave birth to a variety of deities to inhabit those islands, including the sea deity, the deity of the sea-straits, and the deities of the rivers, winds, trees, and mountains. Last, Izanami gave birth to the fire deity, and her genitals were so burned that she died.
Donald L. Philippi, trans., 1969, Kojiki: Princeton, Princeton University Press, 655, and Joseph M. Campbell, 1962, The Masks of God: Oriental Mythology: New York, Viking Press, 561.
Questions:
When heaven and earth began, three deities came into being, The Spirit Master of the Center of Heaven, The August Wondrously Producing Spirit, and the Divine Wondrously Producing Ancestor. These three were invisible. The earth was young then, and land floated like oil, and from it reed shoots sprouted. From these reeds came two more deities. After them, five or six pairs of deities came into being, and the last of these were Izanagi and Izanami, whose names mean "The Male Who Invites" and "The Female who Invites".
The first five deities commanded Izanagi and Izanami to make and solidify the land of Japan, and they gave the young pair a jeweled spear. Standing on the Floating Bridge of Heaven, they dipped it in the ocean brine and stirred. They pulled out the spear, and the brine that dripped of it formed an island to which they descended. On this island they built a palace for their wedding and a great column to the heavens.
Izanami examined her body and found that one place had not grown, and she told this to Izanagi, who replied that his body was well-formed but that one place had grown to excess. He proposed that he place his excess in her place that was not complete and that in doing so they would make new land. They agreed to walk around the pillar and meet behind it to do this. When they arrive behind the pillar, she greeted him by saying "What a fine young man", and he responded by greeting her with "What a fine young woman". They procreated and gave birth to a leech-child, which they put in a basket and let float away. Then they gave birth to a floating island, which likewise they did not recognize as one of their children.
Disappointed by their failures in procreation, they returned to Heaven and consulted the deities there. The deities explained that the cause of their difficulties was that the female had spoken first when they met to procreate. Izanagi and Izanami returned to their island and again met behind the heavenly pillar. When they met, he said, "What a fine young woman," and she said "What a fine young man". They mated and gave birth to the eight main islands of Japan and six minor islands. Then they gave birth to a variety of deities to inhabit those islands, including the sea deity, the deity of the sea-straits, and the deities of the rivers, winds, trees, and mountains. Last, Izanami gave birth to the fire deity, and her genitals were so burned that she died.
Donald L. Philippi, trans., 1969, Kojiki: Princeton, Princeton University Press, 655, and Joseph M. Campbell, 1962, The Masks of God: Oriental Mythology: New York, Viking Press, 561.
Questions:
- Is there one god, goddess, or many? Name the characters.
- Who is responsible for creating humans?
- Is anyone asked to be silent in this story? Who?
- What happens to the female characters?
- What does this story tell us about the gender roles in society around the time the story was recorded?
The Old Testament: Genesis
The following is from the Hebrew Bible, also known as the Old Testament. It is a collection of stories that are the pillar of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam in addition to other texts. In Genesis, meaning the beginning, there are two creation stories written by two different authors sometime between 600-900CE. Scholars know that there are two authors because the language shifts from one story to the next. In the English translations this is shown by the shift between the use of the words Lord and God. In the first story, God creates earth in seven days. In the second, ideas about gender play a big role. The author of this story is known as Jahweh, or J. The characters in this story are Adam and Eve. Adam literally means man, and Eve literally means life.
On the day that Yahweh [sacred Hebrew word meaning God] made the heavens and the earth, the land was dry and barren until a mist came up from the earth and wetted the land. Then Yahweh took dust from the earth and shaped it into the form of a man, and he breathed life into that form, and it came to life.
Yahweh created a garden in a place called Eden. In this garden Yahweh placed all the trees that bear fruit, including the tree of life and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A river flowed out of Eden and watered the garden, and there it divided to become four rivers that flow to the four corners of the world. Yahweh put the man there and instructed him to cultivate the garden and to eat of whatever fruit he liked, except for fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil.
Then Yahweh decided that the man should not be alone, and that he should have a helper. Thus Yahweh made the beasts of the field and the birds of the air, and the man gave a name to each of them. However, none were fit to be his helper, so Yahweh made the man fall into a deep sleep and took one of the man's ribs, and he made it into a woman. This man was Adam, and the woman's name was Eve.
In the garden was a snake, and the snake persuaded the woman that she could eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil without dying, and that eating the fruit would give her Yahweh's knowledge of good and evil. She ate the fruit, and she gave some to the man too. For the first time they were ashamed of being naked, and so they made aprons for themselves.
When the man and woman heard Yahweh in the garden, they hid from him, but Yahweh called them out and asked why they had hidden. The man explained that they hid because of their scanty clothing. Yahweh asked the man how they knew to be ashamed of nudity, and if they had eaten the forbidden fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. The man explained that the woman had eaten of the fruit and given him some too. When Yahweh asked the woman, she explained that the snake had beguiled her into eating the fruit.
Yahweh said to the snake, "Because of what you have done, you are cursed more than any other animal, and you will have to crawl on your belly in the dust, and you will be beaten by the offspring of this woman". To the woman Yahweh said, "You will be cursed with great pain in giving birth to children, yet you will have the desire to reproduce, and your husband will rule you." Finally, to the man Yahweh said, "Because of what you have done, the ground is cursed and you will never eat of this fruit again. You will grow plants and fields and eat bread until you die, until you become the dust from which you were made."
Herbert G. May, editor, The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New York, Oxford University Press, 1564.
Questions:
On the day that Yahweh [sacred Hebrew word meaning God] made the heavens and the earth, the land was dry and barren until a mist came up from the earth and wetted the land. Then Yahweh took dust from the earth and shaped it into the form of a man, and he breathed life into that form, and it came to life.
Yahweh created a garden in a place called Eden. In this garden Yahweh placed all the trees that bear fruit, including the tree of life and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A river flowed out of Eden and watered the garden, and there it divided to become four rivers that flow to the four corners of the world. Yahweh put the man there and instructed him to cultivate the garden and to eat of whatever fruit he liked, except for fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil.
Then Yahweh decided that the man should not be alone, and that he should have a helper. Thus Yahweh made the beasts of the field and the birds of the air, and the man gave a name to each of them. However, none were fit to be his helper, so Yahweh made the man fall into a deep sleep and took one of the man's ribs, and he made it into a woman. This man was Adam, and the woman's name was Eve.
In the garden was a snake, and the snake persuaded the woman that she could eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil without dying, and that eating the fruit would give her Yahweh's knowledge of good and evil. She ate the fruit, and she gave some to the man too. For the first time they were ashamed of being naked, and so they made aprons for themselves.
When the man and woman heard Yahweh in the garden, they hid from him, but Yahweh called them out and asked why they had hidden. The man explained that they hid because of their scanty clothing. Yahweh asked the man how they knew to be ashamed of nudity, and if they had eaten the forbidden fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. The man explained that the woman had eaten of the fruit and given him some too. When Yahweh asked the woman, she explained that the snake had beguiled her into eating the fruit.
Yahweh said to the snake, "Because of what you have done, you are cursed more than any other animal, and you will have to crawl on your belly in the dust, and you will be beaten by the offspring of this woman". To the woman Yahweh said, "You will be cursed with great pain in giving birth to children, yet you will have the desire to reproduce, and your husband will rule you." Finally, to the man Yahweh said, "Because of what you have done, the ground is cursed and you will never eat of this fruit again. You will grow plants and fields and eat bread until you die, until you become the dust from which you were made."
Herbert G. May, editor, The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New York, Oxford University Press, 1564.
Questions:
- What is the role of women in this creation story?
- Why was the women punished by Yahweh?
- How are the characters punished by Yahweh?
- What does this story tell us about the gender roles in society around the time the story was recorded?
The Enuma Elish and the Astrahasis
This creation story is Babylonian from the Enuma Elish and the Astrahasis, written between 1900-1500 BCE, around the time of King Hammurabi. As with many ancient records, they were written on stone tablets, which are today only partially intact. Scholars compiled this story by combining ideas contained in several newer tablets that seem to be consistent with the older ones. This story has a lot of characters. It might be helpful to keep a family tree.
In the beginning, neither heaven nor earth had names. Apsu, the god of fresh waters, and Tiamat, the goddess of the salt oceans, and Mummu, the god of the mist that rises from both of them, were still mingled as one. There were no mountans, there was no pasture land, and not even a reed-marsh could be found to break the surface of the waters.
It was then that Apsu and Tiamat parented two gods, and then two more who outgrew the first pair. These further parented gods, until Ea, who was the god of rivers and was Tiamat and Apsu's geat-grandson, was born. Ea was the cleverest of the gods, and with his magic Ea became the most powerful of the gods, ruling even his forebears.
Apsu and Tiamat's descendents became an unruly crowd. Eventually Apsu, in his frustration and inability to sleep with the clamor, went to Tiamat, and he proposed to her that he slay their noisy offspring. Tiamat was furious at his suggestion to kill their clan, but after leaving her Apsu resolved to proceed with his murderous plan. When the young gods heard of his plot against them, they were silent and fearful, but soon Ea was hatching a scheme. He cast a spell on Apsu, pulled Apsu's crown from his head, and slew him. Ea then built his palace on Apsu's waters, and it was there that, with the goddess Damkina, he fathered Marduk, the four-eared, four-eyed giant who was god of the rains and storms.
The other gods, however, went to Tiamat and complained of how Ea had slain her husband. Aroused, she collected an army of dragons and monsters, and at its head she placed the god Kingu, whom she gave magical powers as well. Even Ea was at a loss how to combat such a host, until he finally called on his son Marduk. Marduk gladly agreed to take on his father's battle, on the condition that he, Marduk, would rule the gods after achieving this victory. The other gods agreed, and at a banquet they gave him his royal robes and scepter.
Marduk armed himself with a bow and arrows, a club, and lightning, and he went in search of Tiamat's monstrous army. Rolling his thunder and storms in front him, he attacked, and Kingu's battle plan soon disintegrated. Tiamat was left alone to fight Marduk, and she howled as they closed for battle. They struggled as Marduk caught her in his nets. When she opened her mouth to devour him, he filled it with the evil wind that served him. She could not close her mouth with his gale blasting in it, and he shot an arrow down her throat. It split her heart, and she was slain.
Alexander Heidel, 1952, The Babylonian Genesis (2nd edn.): Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 153 p.(BS1236.H4 1963).
Tikva Fryer-Kensky, (trans), Astrahasis, in O'Brien, Joan, and Major, Wilfred, 1982, In the Beginning: Creation Myths from Ancient Mesopotamia, Israel, and Greece: Chico, CA, Scholars Press, 211 p. (BL226.O27 1982).
Questions:
In the beginning, neither heaven nor earth had names. Apsu, the god of fresh waters, and Tiamat, the goddess of the salt oceans, and Mummu, the god of the mist that rises from both of them, were still mingled as one. There were no mountans, there was no pasture land, and not even a reed-marsh could be found to break the surface of the waters.
It was then that Apsu and Tiamat parented two gods, and then two more who outgrew the first pair. These further parented gods, until Ea, who was the god of rivers and was Tiamat and Apsu's geat-grandson, was born. Ea was the cleverest of the gods, and with his magic Ea became the most powerful of the gods, ruling even his forebears.
Apsu and Tiamat's descendents became an unruly crowd. Eventually Apsu, in his frustration and inability to sleep with the clamor, went to Tiamat, and he proposed to her that he slay their noisy offspring. Tiamat was furious at his suggestion to kill their clan, but after leaving her Apsu resolved to proceed with his murderous plan. When the young gods heard of his plot against them, they were silent and fearful, but soon Ea was hatching a scheme. He cast a spell on Apsu, pulled Apsu's crown from his head, and slew him. Ea then built his palace on Apsu's waters, and it was there that, with the goddess Damkina, he fathered Marduk, the four-eared, four-eyed giant who was god of the rains and storms.
The other gods, however, went to Tiamat and complained of how Ea had slain her husband. Aroused, she collected an army of dragons and monsters, and at its head she placed the god Kingu, whom she gave magical powers as well. Even Ea was at a loss how to combat such a host, until he finally called on his son Marduk. Marduk gladly agreed to take on his father's battle, on the condition that he, Marduk, would rule the gods after achieving this victory. The other gods agreed, and at a banquet they gave him his royal robes and scepter.
Marduk armed himself with a bow and arrows, a club, and lightning, and he went in search of Tiamat's monstrous army. Rolling his thunder and storms in front him, he attacked, and Kingu's battle plan soon disintegrated. Tiamat was left alone to fight Marduk, and she howled as they closed for battle. They struggled as Marduk caught her in his nets. When she opened her mouth to devour him, he filled it with the evil wind that served him. She could not close her mouth with his gale blasting in it, and he shot an arrow down her throat. It split her heart, and she was slain.
Alexander Heidel, 1952, The Babylonian Genesis (2nd edn.): Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 153 p.(BS1236.H4 1963).
Tikva Fryer-Kensky, (trans), Astrahasis, in O'Brien, Joan, and Major, Wilfred, 1982, In the Beginning: Creation Myths from Ancient Mesopotamia, Israel, and Greece: Chico, CA, Scholars Press, 211 p. (BL226.O27 1982).
Questions:
- Is there one god, goddess, or many?
- Is anyone asked to be silent in this story? Who?
- What happens to the female characters?
- What does this story tell us about the gender roles in society around the time the story was recorded?
Remedial Herstory Editors. "4. 4000-1000 BCE WOMEN IN THE FIRST CITY STATES " The Remedial Herstory Project. November 1, 2022. www.remedialherstory.com.
AUTHOR: |
Dr. Whitney Howarth, Kelsie Brook Eckert, and Jacqui Nelson
|
Consulting Team |
Editors |
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Kelsie Brook Eckert, Project Director
Coordinator of Social Studies Education at Plymouth State University Dr. Nancy Locklin-Sofer, Consultant Professor of History at Maryville College. Chloe Gardner, Consultant PhD Candidate in Religious Studies at Edinburgh University Dr. Whitney Howarth, Consultant Former Professor of History at Plymouth State University Jacqui Nelson, Consultant Teaching Lecturer of Military History at Plymouth State University Maria Concepcion Marquez Sandoval PhD Candidate in History at Arizona University |
Ron Kaiser
Humanities Teacher, Moultonborough Academy ReviewersAncient:
Dr. Kristin Heineman Professor of History at Colorado State University Dr. Bonnie Rock-McCutcheon Professor of History at Wilson College Sarah Stone PhD Candidate in Religious Studies at Edinburgh University Medieval: Dr. Katherine Koh Professor of History at La Sierra University Dr. Jonathan Couser Professor of History at Plymouth State University Dr. Shahla Haeri Professor of History at Boston University Lauren Cole PhD Candidate in History at Northwestern University Modern: Dr. Jack Gronau Professor of History at Northeastern University Dr. Barbara Tischler Supervisor for Hunter College Dr. Pamela Scully Professor of Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies and African Studies at Emory University |
The tellers of Greek myths—historically men—have routinely sidelined the female characters. When they do take a larger role, women are often portrayed as monstrous, vengeful or just plain evil—like Pandora, the woman of eternal scorn and damnation whose curiosity is tasked with causing all the world’s suffering and wickedness when she opened that forbidden box. But, as Natalie Haynes reveals, in ancient Greek myths there was no box. It was a jar . . . which is far more likely to tip over.
Hatshepsut successfully negotiated a path from the royal nursery to the very pinnacle of authority, and her reign saw one of Ancient Egypt's most prolific building periods. Scholars have long speculated as to why her monuments were destroyed within a few decades of her death, all but erasing evidence of her unprecedented rule. Constructing a rich narrative history using the artifacts that remain, noted Egyptologist Kara Cooney offers a remarkable interpretation of how Hatshepsut rapidly but methodically consolidated power - and why she fell from public favor just as quickly. The Woman Who Would Be King traces the unconventional life of an almost-forgotten pharaoh and explores our complicated reactions to women in power.
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"A bold and subversive retelling of the goddess's story," this #1 New York Times bestseller is "both epic and intimate in its scope, recasting the most infamous female figure from the Odyssey as a hero in her own right" (Alexandra Alter, The New York Times).
In the house of Helios, god of the sun and mightiest of the Titans, a daughter is born. But Circe is a strange child -- not powerful, like her father, nor viciously alluring like her mother. Turning to the world of mortals for companionship, she discovers that she does possess power -- the power of witchcraft, which can transform rivals into monsters and menace the gods themselves. 
This first comprehensive work on women in pre-Columbian American cultures describes gender roles and relationships in North, Central, and South America from 12,000 B.C. to the A.D. 1500s. Utilizing many key archaeological works, Karen Olsen Bruhns and Karen E. Stothert redress some of the long-standing male bias in writing about ancient Native American lifeways.
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This riveting narrative explores the lives of six remarkable female pharaohs, from Hatshepsut to Cleopatra--women who ruled with real power--and shines a piercing light on our own perceptions of women in power today.
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The men of Athens gather to determine the truth. Meanwhile, the women of the city, who have no vote, are gathering in the shadows. The women know truth is a slippery thing in the hands of men. There are two sides to every story, and theirs has gone unheard. Until now.
Timely, unflinching, and transportive, Laura Shepperson’s Phaedra carves open long-accepted wounds to give voice to one of the most maligned figures of mythology and offers a stunning story of how truth bends under the weight of patriarchy but can be broken open by the force of one woman’s bravery. |
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Bibliography
Leick, Gwendolyn (2013) [1994], Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature, New York City, New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-92074-7
Strayer, R. and Nelson, E., Ways Of The World. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2016.
Wolkstein, Diane; Kramer, Samuel Noah (1983), Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer, New York City, New York: Harper & Row Publishers, ISBN 978-0-06-090854-6
Strayer, R. and Nelson, E., Ways Of The World. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2016.
Wolkstein, Diane; Kramer, Samuel Noah (1983), Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer, New York City, New York: Harper & Row Publishers, ISBN 978-0-06-090854-6