10. Women and Reconstruction
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Women in the Reconstruction Era, which followed the American Civil War, faced many new challenges. Freedwomen struggled to find their place in society due to separated families, mistreatment from former masters, racism, and no substantial help. Some White Northern women helped with the Freedman's Bureau and fought to help African American's where they could. Whereas, White Southern women worked towards honoring their dead and mythologizing the Confederacy.
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Artwork depicted showing how Freedmen and women gained the ability to be legally recognized as married.
After the Civil War, the struggle to truly emancipate African Americans in the US began. Slavery was a complex and dynamic system of oppression and so was the period of Reconstruction that followed it. To combat rising white terror in the South the Federal Government created the Freedman's Bureau which supplied food, built schools, and enforced peace in Southern states.
Northern and Southern women also found themselves trying to figure out their place in the aftermath of the Civil War. Black women tested the limits of their newfound freedoms and worked to reconnect with family. Northern white women moved towards helping in the Freedman’s Bureau and teaching African Americans. Whereas, Southern white women began their memorial efforts through Ladies Memorials Associations, which eventually transitioned into a national organization known as the United Daughters of the Confederacy. Southern women are responsible for helping create the Lost Cause and mythologizing the efforts of the Confederacy.
From its beginning, the Freedmen's Bureau attempted to bring the free labor society and culture of the Antebellum North to the post-Emancipation South. Executing these ideals proved very difficult. The bureau, who oversaw 14 states throughout the South and Washington, D.C. had less than 1,000 officers to help newly freed black people build hospitals and schools, negotiate labor contract, and legalize marriages, alongside any other issues that ex-slaves faced. The officers were housed in small buildings with a desk, a bed, and stove, and saw a nearly- constant line of Blacks and whites knock on the door and ask for assistance. They also face harassment from disgruntled whites, including receiving threats for organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan.
Northern and Southern women also found themselves trying to figure out their place in the aftermath of the Civil War. Black women tested the limits of their newfound freedoms and worked to reconnect with family. Northern white women moved towards helping in the Freedman’s Bureau and teaching African Americans. Whereas, Southern white women began their memorial efforts through Ladies Memorials Associations, which eventually transitioned into a national organization known as the United Daughters of the Confederacy. Southern women are responsible for helping create the Lost Cause and mythologizing the efforts of the Confederacy.
From its beginning, the Freedmen's Bureau attempted to bring the free labor society and culture of the Antebellum North to the post-Emancipation South. Executing these ideals proved very difficult. The bureau, who oversaw 14 states throughout the South and Washington, D.C. had less than 1,000 officers to help newly freed black people build hospitals and schools, negotiate labor contract, and legalize marriages, alongside any other issues that ex-slaves faced. The officers were housed in small buildings with a desk, a bed, and stove, and saw a nearly- constant line of Blacks and whites knock on the door and ask for assistance. They also face harassment from disgruntled whites, including receiving threats for organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan.
A multitude of newly freed Black women asked the Bureau for help to find food and shelter, what we considered to be the necessities. These women were largely illiterate and most of them were mothers. They spent most of their energy trying to find information on their children, seeking protection from their former masters, and acquiring legal justice to help recover the wages they were being denied and any other form of exploitation that they were facing. Women of color fought for their lives and families in any way they could.
In many areas of the South, African American women found themselves and their families living with their former masters. They continued working for their previous owner in exchange for shelter and support as they began to grapple with freedom. Another challenge that Black women had to overcome was the anger of their former masters and mistresses as their previous owners struggled with the after effects of the Civil War. White owners found themselves destitute, homeless, traumatized by death, and now, they felt like they were being forced into a position of giving relief to their former slaves at the direction of an occupying northern army. The anger and resentment of their previous owners impacted the lives of African Americans, especially African American women, who were more likely to depend on the welfare of their former masters, as they were often the sole providers of basic necessities for their children. These women found themselves in tragic positions, being abused by their old masters and mistresses so that they could provide their children with the necessities in life. The Freedmen’s Bureau has a multitude of letters and reports showing these accounts of abuse and hardship.
After the war, African American women traveled for many miles on landscapes they knew nothing about seeking some kind of recourse for abuse, to gain the money that was due to them, and to find a safe haven for their families. Laura Scott, an African American woman owned by Robert Garrett, senior on the Greenway Plantation in King William County, Virginia explained that Garrett, Jr., beat her, refused to support her and her five children, who, she claimed, were fathered by Garrett Jr.. Laura also reported that the elder Garrett “left his entire estate to the colored people living on it” and the younger Garrett, unsurprisingly, denied this claim. Not only then, did African American mothers have to worry about supporting their children after freedom, but they were forced to deal with the fact that their children were a product of slavery and were illegitimate children of their previous owners or the owners family. These former masters felt no obligation to the children they fathered and left the women with no legal foundation to stand on for protection.
In many areas of the South, African American women found themselves and their families living with their former masters. They continued working for their previous owner in exchange for shelter and support as they began to grapple with freedom. Another challenge that Black women had to overcome was the anger of their former masters and mistresses as their previous owners struggled with the after effects of the Civil War. White owners found themselves destitute, homeless, traumatized by death, and now, they felt like they were being forced into a position of giving relief to their former slaves at the direction of an occupying northern army. The anger and resentment of their previous owners impacted the lives of African Americans, especially African American women, who were more likely to depend on the welfare of their former masters, as they were often the sole providers of basic necessities for their children. These women found themselves in tragic positions, being abused by their old masters and mistresses so that they could provide their children with the necessities in life. The Freedmen’s Bureau has a multitude of letters and reports showing these accounts of abuse and hardship.
After the war, African American women traveled for many miles on landscapes they knew nothing about seeking some kind of recourse for abuse, to gain the money that was due to them, and to find a safe haven for their families. Laura Scott, an African American woman owned by Robert Garrett, senior on the Greenway Plantation in King William County, Virginia explained that Garrett, Jr., beat her, refused to support her and her five children, who, she claimed, were fathered by Garrett Jr.. Laura also reported that the elder Garrett “left his entire estate to the colored people living on it” and the younger Garrett, unsurprisingly, denied this claim. Not only then, did African American mothers have to worry about supporting their children after freedom, but they were forced to deal with the fact that their children were a product of slavery and were illegitimate children of their previous owners or the owners family. These former masters felt no obligation to the children they fathered and left the women with no legal foundation to stand on for protection.
Mary Robsinson
African American women sought help from the legal system to recover lost wages. Maria Barnett of New Kent County filed a complaint about Isiah Higgins because he promised to pay her, but “kept her till the crop was secured and turned her off, beating her severely.” In July 1866, Julia Reynolds presented her case to Provost Marshal Cook in Staunton, Virginia stating that Susan Alexander owed her forty-five dollars for labor stretching from April 1865 to March 1866. The date of when she claimed her labor began is telling. Julia insisted on being paid the same month the Civil War ended. The fact that Julia waited a year to file this complaint is intriguing, but perhaps Alexander could not pay her and kept promising her she would get paid.
In a complaint filed in August 1865, Sally Jackson visited P.S. Evans, a Bureau officer seeking justice and likely protection from John Taylor of King William County who “promised to feed and clothe her and her three children till Christmas.” According to Jackson, Taylor “with no provocation beat her very severely and drove her and her little ones away paying her nothing and threatening to shoot her if she returned.” Black women often found themselves in a convoluted web of expectations and realities that left them focused on food, shelter, and protection for themselves and their children, but left them forced to deal with labels of dependency, laziness, “sassiness”, and situations involving beatings and rape. The sacrifices that African American women made during slavery for their children did not simply vanish after the war; in many ways the challenges of womanhood and motherhood and merging of the two were only now beginning.
One of the first things that women sought after being freed was to reunite, if possible, with their families. These hopes are reflected often in the letters of the Freedmen’s Bureau. In November 1866, Mary Robinson of Winchester, Virginia visited the local Freedmen’s Bureau office to inquire about her two sons, George and Shirley, 16 and 11 years old, both of whom were sold in Richmond in 1862. Mary asked that an advertisement be placed in a local Richmond paper with “the largest southern circulation” for any word of her children. African American newspapers assisted with this effort for years after emancipation, which must have been a daunting task. These women, as chattel with no rights to their own children, are left with relying on strangers, extended family, newspapers, and word of mouth to find their families. Trying to communicate with displaced family members must have also limited the women’s opportunity to travel to find shelter and work. If a woman moved, she would jeopardize her chances of a loved one being able to find her. Her reluctance to move contributed to the false idea that African American women refused to migrate to find work and were lazy and insubordinate.
In a complaint filed in August 1865, Sally Jackson visited P.S. Evans, a Bureau officer seeking justice and likely protection from John Taylor of King William County who “promised to feed and clothe her and her three children till Christmas.” According to Jackson, Taylor “with no provocation beat her very severely and drove her and her little ones away paying her nothing and threatening to shoot her if she returned.” Black women often found themselves in a convoluted web of expectations and realities that left them focused on food, shelter, and protection for themselves and their children, but left them forced to deal with labels of dependency, laziness, “sassiness”, and situations involving beatings and rape. The sacrifices that African American women made during slavery for their children did not simply vanish after the war; in many ways the challenges of womanhood and motherhood and merging of the two were only now beginning.
One of the first things that women sought after being freed was to reunite, if possible, with their families. These hopes are reflected often in the letters of the Freedmen’s Bureau. In November 1866, Mary Robinson of Winchester, Virginia visited the local Freedmen’s Bureau office to inquire about her two sons, George and Shirley, 16 and 11 years old, both of whom were sold in Richmond in 1862. Mary asked that an advertisement be placed in a local Richmond paper with “the largest southern circulation” for any word of her children. African American newspapers assisted with this effort for years after emancipation, which must have been a daunting task. These women, as chattel with no rights to their own children, are left with relying on strangers, extended family, newspapers, and word of mouth to find their families. Trying to communicate with displaced family members must have also limited the women’s opportunity to travel to find shelter and work. If a woman moved, she would jeopardize her chances of a loved one being able to find her. Her reluctance to move contributed to the false idea that African American women refused to migrate to find work and were lazy and insubordinate.
Belle Kearney
White Women Reformers: Kay Ann Taylor wrote a great scholarly article about two black women who became educators during this period. She said, “The status of all women during this time was embedded in oppression. Black women lived in greater oppression than White women, thus making it more difficult for Black women to secure sponsorship to participate in the education of the freedpeople. Within this context, the accomplishments and self-determination of Peake and Forten during this time become more significant and compelling.”
Mary Ames was a northern white woman who traveled to the south to help educate formerly enslaved people, specifically children. She wrote in her diary, “The school was in a building once used as a biller room, which accommodated a large number of peoples. We often had 120, and word went forth that supplies had come, the number increased. Indeed, it was so crowded that we told the men and women they must stay away to leave space for the children, as we considered teaching them more important…”
White Southern Women: In the South, women not only had to adjust to the loss of free labor, they were also coming to terms with their new found poverty and ultimately the defeat of the Confederacy. The ladies came to terms with their future in many ways. Some spoke out against Reconstruction. Others focused on the slaves who were freed. Ultimately, though, Southern women as a whole came together to honor their dead to to shape the narrative around the ideals of the Confederacy and the reason why the Confederacy lost the war.
Frances Butler Leigh was one of the women who spoke out against Reconstruction. She was a white woman from the South who opposed the Federal Government’s Reconstruction policies, especially when the Radical Republicans imposed military governments in Southern states, forcing the Southern states to rewrite and reformed their Constitutions if they wanted the military forces to leave. Leigh wrote about her frustrations with the new government structure in a letter, “We are, I am afraid, going to have terrible trouble by-and-by with the Negroes, and I see nothing but gloomy prospects for us ahead. The unlimited power the war has put into the hands of the present government at Washington seems to have turned the heads of the party now in office, and they don’t know where to stop. The whole south is settled and quiet, and the people to ruined and crushed to do anything against the government, even if they felt so inclined, and all are returning to their former peaceful pursuits, trying to rebuild their fortunes and thinking of nothing else. Yet the treatment we receive from the government becomes more and more severe every day the last acting to divide the south and to five military districts putting each under the command of the United States general, doing away with civil courts and law.”
Belle Kearney however focused on how she perceived the freeing of her fathers slaves. Kearney, who was the daughter of a white slave owner observed the practicality of Reconstruction first hand. She wrote, ”As soon as father was physically strong enough to perform the trying duty, he went to the negro quarters on his plantation, assembled his slaves, and announced to them that they were free. There was no wild shout of joy or other demonstration of gladness. The deepest gloom prevailed in their ranks and an expression of mournful bewilderment settled upon their dusky faces. They did not understand that strange, sweet word—freedom. Poor things!... They were stunned. What were they to do? Where would they go? What would become of them? Who would feed and clothe them, and care for them in sickness, when they went out from the “marster” free?”
Mary Ames was a northern white woman who traveled to the south to help educate formerly enslaved people, specifically children. She wrote in her diary, “The school was in a building once used as a biller room, which accommodated a large number of peoples. We often had 120, and word went forth that supplies had come, the number increased. Indeed, it was so crowded that we told the men and women they must stay away to leave space for the children, as we considered teaching them more important…”
White Southern Women: In the South, women not only had to adjust to the loss of free labor, they were also coming to terms with their new found poverty and ultimately the defeat of the Confederacy. The ladies came to terms with their future in many ways. Some spoke out against Reconstruction. Others focused on the slaves who were freed. Ultimately, though, Southern women as a whole came together to honor their dead to to shape the narrative around the ideals of the Confederacy and the reason why the Confederacy lost the war.
Frances Butler Leigh was one of the women who spoke out against Reconstruction. She was a white woman from the South who opposed the Federal Government’s Reconstruction policies, especially when the Radical Republicans imposed military governments in Southern states, forcing the Southern states to rewrite and reformed their Constitutions if they wanted the military forces to leave. Leigh wrote about her frustrations with the new government structure in a letter, “We are, I am afraid, going to have terrible trouble by-and-by with the Negroes, and I see nothing but gloomy prospects for us ahead. The unlimited power the war has put into the hands of the present government at Washington seems to have turned the heads of the party now in office, and they don’t know where to stop. The whole south is settled and quiet, and the people to ruined and crushed to do anything against the government, even if they felt so inclined, and all are returning to their former peaceful pursuits, trying to rebuild their fortunes and thinking of nothing else. Yet the treatment we receive from the government becomes more and more severe every day the last acting to divide the south and to five military districts putting each under the command of the United States general, doing away with civil courts and law.”
Belle Kearney however focused on how she perceived the freeing of her fathers slaves. Kearney, who was the daughter of a white slave owner observed the practicality of Reconstruction first hand. She wrote, ”As soon as father was physically strong enough to perform the trying duty, he went to the negro quarters on his plantation, assembled his slaves, and announced to them that they were free. There was no wild shout of joy or other demonstration of gladness. The deepest gloom prevailed in their ranks and an expression of mournful bewilderment settled upon their dusky faces. They did not understand that strange, sweet word—freedom. Poor things!... They were stunned. What were they to do? Where would they go? What would become of them? Who would feed and clothe them, and care for them in sickness, when they went out from the “marster” free?”
The United Daughters of the Confederacy
As the ladies shifted their focus from emancipation and Reconstruction the chose to funnel their efforts into honoring the dead with new cemeteries, monuments, and annual Decoration Day observances. Women’s societies created during the war years became Ladies Memorial Associations that helped bring together former Confederates from across the South to help provide funds and support towards reburying the ocnfederate soldiers in newly created Confederate Cemetaries throughout the South. There were Ladies Memorial Associations in every state of the South, and their tireless efforts soon transformed the “ladies groups” into powerful civic organizations that helped shaped the programs of local and state governments.
From 1865 to 1890, Ladies Memorial Associations created memorials throughout the South to honor the soldiers who served the Confederacy in the war. At the end of the 19th century, these groups joined together to create a national organization known first as the National Association of the Daughters of the Confederacy. The name changed to United Daughters of the Confederacy shortly afterit was established due to the original name being a bit of a handful to say or write. The original mission statement forthe UDC asserted that it had been formed to "tell of the glorious fight against the greatest odds a nation ever faced, that their hallowed memory should never die." Southern women truly found their place in helping keep the memory alive of the Confederacy and those who they lost. Just as Northern and Southern women began finding their place in society after the war, so did the newly freedwomen.
The Freedwomen were eager to test their freedom and had clear ideas of what being free really meant. One unnamed freewoman wrote, “One time some Yankee soldiers stopped and started talking to me—they asked me what my name was. I say Liza, and they say, “Do anybody ever call you [the n-word]?” And I say, “Yes Sir.” He say, “Next time anybody call you [that] you tell ’em dat you is a Negro and your name is Miss Liza.” The more I thought of that the more I liked it and I made up my mind to do jest what he told me to. . . . One evening I was minding the calves and old Master come along. He say, “What you doin’ [n-word]?” I say real pert like, “I’se a Negro and I’m Miss Liza Mixon.” Old Master sho’ was surprised and he picks up a switch and starts at me. Law, but I was skeered! . . . I jest said dat to de wrong person.”
From 1865 to 1890, Ladies Memorial Associations created memorials throughout the South to honor the soldiers who served the Confederacy in the war. At the end of the 19th century, these groups joined together to create a national organization known first as the National Association of the Daughters of the Confederacy. The name changed to United Daughters of the Confederacy shortly afterit was established due to the original name being a bit of a handful to say or write. The original mission statement forthe UDC asserted that it had been formed to "tell of the glorious fight against the greatest odds a nation ever faced, that their hallowed memory should never die." Southern women truly found their place in helping keep the memory alive of the Confederacy and those who they lost. Just as Northern and Southern women began finding their place in society after the war, so did the newly freedwomen.
The Freedwomen were eager to test their freedom and had clear ideas of what being free really meant. One unnamed freewoman wrote, “One time some Yankee soldiers stopped and started talking to me—they asked me what my name was. I say Liza, and they say, “Do anybody ever call you [the n-word]?” And I say, “Yes Sir.” He say, “Next time anybody call you [that] you tell ’em dat you is a Negro and your name is Miss Liza.” The more I thought of that the more I liked it and I made up my mind to do jest what he told me to. . . . One evening I was minding the calves and old Master come along. He say, “What you doin’ [n-word]?” I say real pert like, “I’se a Negro and I’m Miss Liza Mixon.” Old Master sho’ was surprised and he picks up a switch and starts at me. Law, but I was skeered! . . . I jest said dat to de wrong person.”
A postcard taken of Laura and L.D. Nelson
Black women, now free, were not really free though. On May 25, 1911, Laura Nelson and her son L.D. Nelson were lynched from a bridge over the North Canadian River due to allegations that L.D. Nelson shot and killed George H. Loney, who was Okemah’s deputy sheriff. This killing transpired after the deputy sheriff and a mob of individuals showed up at the Nelson household and accused Laura Nelson’s husband, Austin Nelson, of stealing a cow. Although it is not documented who fired the shot that killed the deputy, it is said that he was shot in self- defense. It is also said that Laura grabbed the gun first and L.D. fired the shot, but there is no record of what actually transpired. Following this incident, Austin, Laura, and L.D. Nelson were taken into custody. Laura and L.D. were charged with murder and awaited trial in the Okemah county jail. Austin pleaded guilty to larceny and was sent to the state prison in McAlester for three years.
According to police officer,W.L. Payne, who was in charge of guarding the cells, a lynch mob of approximately forty white men, tied, bound, and gagged him at gun point. After doing this, they proceeded to kidnap Laura and L.D. Nelson. Although it is presumed that Laura had a baby with her during her stay in jail and lynching, there are no records indicating the existence or survival of the child. After their kidnapping on May 24, the press reported that Laura was raped and then hung along with her thirteen-year-old son L.D. from the Old Schoolton Bridge that ran over the North Canadian River.
Following the event, sightseers gathered to take photos with the hanging bodies. Although a grand jury was convened, Laura and L.D.’s killers were not identified or charged. Despite the fact that there is no exact recounting of the specific details of the events, it is evident that two African American individuals were denied their rights to go through the legal system, instead the community took it upon themselves to take justice into their own hands rather than allowing a fair judicial sentencing. This postcard is one of the few visual records of the lynching of a woman. Aside from the postcard, Laura and her family are memorialized through the works of Woody Guthrie and Andrew Hardaway. Guthrie produced a song entitled, “Don’t Kill My Baby and My Son,” and Hardaway wrote a two-act play, Falling Eve, inspired by the Nelson lynching.
By the end of this era, so much remained in question. Would Black women find freedom after Reconstruction? Would these women find a place in the reform movements of the period? How would Southern women’s new found roles impact the suffrage movement? And could former masters and enslaved women learn to respect one another?
According to police officer,W.L. Payne, who was in charge of guarding the cells, a lynch mob of approximately forty white men, tied, bound, and gagged him at gun point. After doing this, they proceeded to kidnap Laura and L.D. Nelson. Although it is presumed that Laura had a baby with her during her stay in jail and lynching, there are no records indicating the existence or survival of the child. After their kidnapping on May 24, the press reported that Laura was raped and then hung along with her thirteen-year-old son L.D. from the Old Schoolton Bridge that ran over the North Canadian River.
Following the event, sightseers gathered to take photos with the hanging bodies. Although a grand jury was convened, Laura and L.D.’s killers were not identified or charged. Despite the fact that there is no exact recounting of the specific details of the events, it is evident that two African American individuals were denied their rights to go through the legal system, instead the community took it upon themselves to take justice into their own hands rather than allowing a fair judicial sentencing. This postcard is one of the few visual records of the lynching of a woman. Aside from the postcard, Laura and her family are memorialized through the works of Woody Guthrie and Andrew Hardaway. Guthrie produced a song entitled, “Don’t Kill My Baby and My Son,” and Hardaway wrote a two-act play, Falling Eve, inspired by the Nelson lynching.
By the end of this era, so much remained in question. Would Black women find freedom after Reconstruction? Would these women find a place in the reform movements of the period? How would Southern women’s new found roles impact the suffrage movement? And could former masters and enslaved women learn to respect one another?
Draw your own conclusions
Library of Congress
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Were Black women free during Reconstruction?
White, Black, southern, and northern women all had unique perspectives on American Reconstruction after the Civil War. Their reflections and ideas give us great insights into the success of Reconstruction and whether Black women were free. 
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Library of Congress
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Did Black men need the vote more than women?
Following the 13th and 14th Amendments, conversation shifted to voting rights and the American Equal Rights Association emerged to push for Universal Suffrage, but it quickly became clear not everyone would get the vote at the same time-- and Black men would be first.
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Library of Congress
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Why was Susan B. Anthony a criminal?
To answer this questions, students will reenact her trial, which took place in New York in 1873. Students will first be struck by the fact that no women were a part of the court proceedings, and even Anthony was unable to speak until the end. Her trial was a very big deal, former president Millard Filmore attended, because, as Matilda Gage put it, "Susan B. Anthony was not on trial, the United States was on trial."
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Library of Congress
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Why did Black women’s clubs develop? Were these clubs elitist or a necessary step?
In the 1890's Black women formed clubs to address issues not addressed in white society. These clubs pushed the "politics of respectability," which was arguably condescending. But was it a necessary step? In this inquiry, students examine the rise of these clubs, their goals and their effect on Black women.
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Library of Congress
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Why was Mary Baker Eddy so controversial?
Mary Baker Eddy was the first woman in world history to found a sustaining religion, but it was a difficult road. Prominent voices from her time were incredibly critical of her, her own family tried to sue her to get her money. Eddy also had loyal friends and advocates from within her religion and without. In this inquiry students examine primary and secondary sources to determine why MBE and her religion were so controversial.
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Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- The National Women's History Museum has lesson plans on women's history.
- The Gilder Lehrman Institute for American History has lesson plans on women's history.
- The NY Historical Society has articles and classroom activities for teaching women's history.
- Unladylike 2020, in partnership with PBS, has primary sources to explore with students and outstanding videos on women from the Progressive era.
- The Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media has produced recommendations for teaching women's history with primary sources and provided a collection of sources for world history. Check them out!
- The Stanford History Education Group has a number of lesson plans about women in US History.
Bibliography
Ames, Mary. A New England Woman’s Diary in Dixie in 1865. Springfield, 1906. Retrieved from Cheryl Edwards, Ed. Reconstruction: Binding the Wounds. Massachusetts: Discovery Enterprises, Ltd, 1995.
Collins, Gail, America's Women: Four Hundred Years of Dolls, Drudges, Helpmates, and Heroines. New York, William Morrow, 2003.
Denkler, Ann. “African-American Women in Reconstruction in the Shenandoah Valley.” Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos. Last modified April 8, 2014. http://journals.openedition.org/nuevomundo/66621.
DuBois, Ellen Carol, 1947-. Through Women's Eyes : an American History with Documents. Boston :Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.Indians Editors. “NATIVE AMERICAN WOMEN.” Indians. N.D. http://indians.org/articles/Native-american-women.html.
Gienapp, William E., ed. The Civil War and Reconstruction: A Documentary Collection (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 234. Retrieved from https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/The_Reconstruction_Era_a nd_the_Fragility_of_Democracy_1.pdf.
Kearney, Belle. A Slaveholder’s Daughter. New York: The Abbey Press, 1900. Retrieved from Cheryl Edwards, Ed. Reconstruction: Binding the Wounds. Massachusetts: Discovery Enterprises, Ltd, 1995.
Taylor, Kay Ann. "Mary S. Peake and Charlotte L. Forten: Black Teachers During the Civil War and Reconstruction." The Journal of Negro Education 74, no. 2 (2005): 124-37. Accessed March 8, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40034538.
Virginia Historical Society. “Freedman’s Schools.” Virginia Historical Society. N.D. https://www.virginiahistory.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/freedmens-schools.
Ventura, Patricia and Clio Admin. "Lynching of Laura and L.D. Nelson." Clio: Your Guide to History. January 29, 2018. Accessed March 23, 2021. https://www.theclio.com/entry/22734.
Van Noppen, Ina Woestemeyer. The South: A Documentary History. Princeton: D. Van Norstrand Company, 1958. From “A Report of the Joint Committee to Inquire into the Conditions of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States.” Washington, 1872, vol III. Retrieved from Cheryl Edwards, Ed. Reconstruction: Binding the Wounds. Massachusetts: Discovery Enterprises, Ltd, 1995.
Ware, Susan. American Women’s History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Collins, Gail, America's Women: Four Hundred Years of Dolls, Drudges, Helpmates, and Heroines. New York, William Morrow, 2003.
Denkler, Ann. “African-American Women in Reconstruction in the Shenandoah Valley.” Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos. Last modified April 8, 2014. http://journals.openedition.org/nuevomundo/66621.
DuBois, Ellen Carol, 1947-. Through Women's Eyes : an American History with Documents. Boston :Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.Indians Editors. “NATIVE AMERICAN WOMEN.” Indians. N.D. http://indians.org/articles/Native-american-women.html.
Gienapp, William E., ed. The Civil War and Reconstruction: A Documentary Collection (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 234. Retrieved from https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/The_Reconstruction_Era_a nd_the_Fragility_of_Democracy_1.pdf.
Kearney, Belle. A Slaveholder’s Daughter. New York: The Abbey Press, 1900. Retrieved from Cheryl Edwards, Ed. Reconstruction: Binding the Wounds. Massachusetts: Discovery Enterprises, Ltd, 1995.
Taylor, Kay Ann. "Mary S. Peake and Charlotte L. Forten: Black Teachers During the Civil War and Reconstruction." The Journal of Negro Education 74, no. 2 (2005): 124-37. Accessed March 8, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40034538.
Virginia Historical Society. “Freedman’s Schools.” Virginia Historical Society. N.D. https://www.virginiahistory.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/freedmens-schools.
Ventura, Patricia and Clio Admin. "Lynching of Laura and L.D. Nelson." Clio: Your Guide to History. January 29, 2018. Accessed March 23, 2021. https://www.theclio.com/entry/22734.
Van Noppen, Ina Woestemeyer. The South: A Documentary History. Princeton: D. Van Norstrand Company, 1958. From “A Report of the Joint Committee to Inquire into the Conditions of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States.” Washington, 1872, vol III. Retrieved from Cheryl Edwards, Ed. Reconstruction: Binding the Wounds. Massachusetts: Discovery Enterprises, Ltd, 1995.
Ware, Susan. American Women’s History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Primary AUTHOR: |
Kelsie Brook Eckert
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Primary ReviewerS: |
Annabelle Blevins-Pifer
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Consulting TeamKelsie Brook Eckert, Project Director
Coordinator of Social Studies Education at Plymouth State University Dr. Barbara Tischler, Consultant Professor of History Hunter College and Columbia University Dr. Alicia Gutierrez-Romine, Consultant Assistant Professor of History at La Sierra University Jacqui Nelson, Consultant Teaching Lecturer of Military History at Plymouth State University Dr. Deanna Beachley Professor of History and Women's Studies at College of Southern Nevada |
EditorsReviewersColonial
Dr. Margaret Huettl Hannah Dutton Dr. John Krueckeberg 19th Century Dr. Rebecca Noel Michelle Stonis, MA Annabelle L. Blevins Pifer, MA Cony Marquez, PhD Candidate 20th Century Dr. Tanya Roth Dr. Jessica Frazier Mary Bezbatchenko, MA |
Remedial Herstory Editors. "10. WOMEN AND RECONSTRUCTION." The Remedial Herstory Project. November 20, 2022. www.remedialherstory.com.
