18. 1000-1600 Women Explorers and Leaders
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While historians’ and geographers’ focus has tended to be on voyages of exploration led by men during the so-called “Age of Discovery,” there were women engaged in the same activity. From Viking women making trailblazing journeys, to European queens ruling countries and funding expeditions, women played a major role in exploration in this era.
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A prevailing superstition among sailors was that a woman on board a ship was bad luck. Some believed that a woman’s presence would anger the sea and endanger them all, while others believed female mermaids would pull them into rocky coastlines. Mythical or not, superstition dictated that it was best to avoid women while on board. In reality, few crews included women primarily because they were considered a distraction to the male crew. Likewise, sailors were also notoriously drunkards, and social customs encouraged women to avoid such behavior.
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Their ships, however, were addressed in the feminine as “she” and “her.” In ancient history, ships were named after goddesses, but by this period, European ships were increasingly named after mortal women - typically, noblewomen, wives, daughters, and so on. Further, despite their reservations about women aboard their ships, sailors believed that naked women calmed the sea, so most figureheads depicted beautiful and topless women as a gift to the sea gods. |
Figurehead (n.), a carved wooden or metal decoration on the bow of a ship. |
Map of Viking explorations in the Atlantic Ocean. Gudrid would be associated with her husband, Thorfinn Karlsefni’s voyage, Public Domain
Nonetheless, when one thinks of the exploration of the New World, visions of ships filled with men claiming new lands come to mind. Yet, beyond being figureheads on ships, when the Old and New Worlds are on the brink of connection, women found themselves at the helm, writing the checks, or authorizing these explorations.
Gudrid the Viking
There were millions of diverse peoples living in the Americas before the arrival of the Old World. Studies show that nomadic groups were crossing a now submerged land bridge between Russia and Alaska between 23,000 and 15,000 years ago, spreading down the West Coast of the Americas before spreading eastward over thousands of years. Ancient Egyptians are believed to have explored and settled in the Americas over 3,000 years ago, and another wave of African exploration is said to have begun several hundred years before Columbus. While Columbus’ 1492 voyage is remembered as the start of European exploration, the Vikings had already explored and attempted settlement of the far reaches of North America nearly 500 years prior. One of those women at the helm of exploration was Gudrid Thorbjarnardóttir, who took part in exploration of Canada, more than 1,000 years ago.
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Gudrid is a bit of a mystery. She is described as beautiful, smart, and political. She appears in a few Viking sagas, but in some she is a poor Icelandic woman who never reached Greenland during her venture, while in other versions, she is a wealthy explorer who not only made it to Greenland but sailed on to Canada with her husband and a small crew. She landed in what the Vikings called Vinland (“wine land”), modern Newfoundland, where she created a settlement and lived for three years around 1000 CE. She later returned to the more established Viking settlements in Iceland, and archaeologists have found what they believe to be Gudrid’s home in Iceland based on the sagas. It is built in the style of those found in Newfoundland settlements, including the one she and her husband were said to have founded, adding further credence to the story. While Gudrid was the most famous, there were likely other Viking women that sailed to North America to help form these settlements.
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Saga (n.), a long story of heroic achievement, especially a medieval prose narrative in Old Norse or Old Icelandic.
Credence (n.), belief in or acceptance of something as true. |
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The sagas indicate that Gudrid explored well into her forties and fifties. In her lifetime, it is said that she made eight crossings of the North Atlantic Sea. She may have traveled farther than any other Viking, with the sagas indicating that she sailed from Scandinavia to Greenland to North America to Rome and back again in her later life. Yet, generally, historians have not given Gudrid the same respect as others who made such voyages. Historian Nancy Marie Brown points out that Gudrid was an adventurer, “She was not dragged along. This was her choice. She could have very easily stayed home in Greenland. She wanted to go.” 500 years before Columbus, and another several hundred years before even the heartiest of men were willing to make the leap to settle the New World, Gudrid had already come and gone. |
Statue of Gudrid and her son in Iceland, Public Domain
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Chinese Voyagers
The Chinese under the last imperial dynasty - the Ming Dynasty, ruling from 1368-1644 - sent explorers into the Pacific and Indian Oceans in the early 1400s. These voyages, under the leadership of Zheng He between 1405 and 1433, put those of the contemporary Europeans to shame. At its peak, He’s fleet was 100x the size of Columbus’ 1492 voyage. In fact, all three of his ships, all of his crewmen, and all of his equipment could have fit on the deck of the largest Chinese ship. To protect his massive fleets, Zheng He called on the help of Tianfei, the goddess of seafarers.
Map of Zheng He’s voyages, Public Domain
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But these explorations stopped just as quickly as they had begun, owing to a concern that investment in ships did not make economic sense and China retreated into a state of isolationism. Their oceanic retreat led to the rise of European traders seeking to fill the void in the India trade. They began to explore the Atlantic, looking for a more efficient trading path to the rich spices and teas of Asia. While for some Europeans this led to exploration along the west coast of Africa, for others, it led to the “discovery” of the Americas, launching a whole new wave of exploration, conquest, and colonization. Eventually, silver obtained from mines in Spanish America enriched Western Europe and was brought to China and India in exchange for tea and spices. Europeans became the primary actors in the now “global” economy.
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Isolationism (n.), a policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries.
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Despite ongoing Confucian ideology that dictated a level of segregation of men and women, women who lived and worked in Chinese harbor cities and coastal regions increasingly engaged with Europeans, which had the potential to put pressure on existing cultural norms. Patricia Ebrey notes that the purveying belief was that,
The natural relationship between yin and yang is the reason that men lead and women follow. If yin unnaturally gains the upper hand, order at both the cosmic and social level are endangered. Maintaining a physical separation between the worlds of men and the worlds of women was viewed as an important first step toward assuring that yin would not dominate yang. The Confucian [...] sentiment was expressed in the Book of Documents in proverbial form: “When the hen announces the dawn, it signals the demise of the family.”
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Isabella of Spain With Viking explorations of the New World dismissed and forgotten in the historical record, the “discovery” of the New World is often credited to Christopher Columbus. Columbus, like other explorers, was seeking to find an alternative path to the spice markets of India and “Oriental” markets of China. These places were the center of most of the Old World’s trade and each country was seeking greater (and cheaper) access to these markets. The primary path was through the Mediterranean to trade in the Levant or gain access to the Red Sea and into the Indian Ocean. Each required interaction with the empires and kingdoms of the Middle East that stood as middlemen in this lucrative trade. There was not only profit to be made here, but also centuries of hostility toward European powers that influenced how amicable or contentious these trade relationships would be. The nature of the relationship with these middlemen invariably affected the cost of goods being traded. Thus, most Europeans were hungry for a new path to these markets which could cut out the middleman altogether. With the difficulty of travel by land, this meant one of two paths: around the unknown reaches of Africa, or into the unknown reaches of the Atlantic Ocean to reach the other side of China (given that they knew the world was round, but not that there was another series of continents in their path). |
Amicable (adj.), (of relations between people) having a spirit of friendliness. Contentious (adj.), causing or likely to cause an argument; controversial. |
Columbus explaining his discovery of America to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, wikimedia commons
Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I at her coronation, wikimedia commons
However, Christopher Columbus would not have had the money, ships, or crew for his “discovery” of the Americas without the support of Queen Isabella of Spain. Columbus asked Queen Isabella and her husband, King Ferdinand, to support his exploration. New access to these markets was not only key to his proposed journey, it was also essential to the queen and king’s continued unification of Catholic Spain and for their systematic targeting of all non-Catholics in their newly unified state. Beyond just professed faith, they sought to exile or eliminate anyone of Jewish, Muslim, and other ancestries in the name of the “purity of blood.” If conversion wasn’t enough to save someone from Spanish persecution, it calls into question if the Inquisition and other such religious efforts were ever truly about faith. Nonetheless, finding a new route to the Asian spice markets would save the Spanish money, thus providing further financing for their unification efforts.
Columbus, mistakenly, believed that he had reached the East Indies when he made landfall in October of 1492, when he actually reached an island of the Bahamas. He was certain he had successfully found a “backdoor” to Asia, and to prove this, he returned with a number of indigenous captives, who he mistakenly called “Indians,” but were actually Taino people. Isabella ordered some of these enslaved people to be freed, and was even considering the prospect of rights for them under the Spanish crown, but she died in 1504, before the full extent of his discovery was known.
While Columbus was incorrect about his discovery, it set off a firestorm of exploration anyway, as the mere potential of a new route to Asia was too tempting to ignore. Exploration of the Atlantic and the Americans increased dramatically in the coming years, including three additional voyages by Columbus before it was formally recognized as something new, rather than the far reaches of Asia.
Isabella was not the only Spanish monarch to fund expeditions to the New World, but she did help to unify Spain and established a strong and profitable court which made Columbus’ and future expeditions possible. The wealth left behind after her reign allowed for Spain to hold a monopoly on the exploration and riches of the New World for hundreds of years. Yet, as Spain’s influence grew throughout South and Central America, the indigenous people suffered terribly.
Queen Elizabeth and England
By the turn of the 16th century, the New World became the obsession of all Europeans, and soon the Spanish were not the only nation to explore and conquer the Americas. The Portuguese, French, Dutch, and Swedish all made their presence known, and England’s Queen Elizabeth I made exploration the cornerstone of her reign. Queen of England from 1558-1603, Elizabeth remains one of the most famous and successful European monarchs. However, her reign was not without controversy, just like her mother’s before her [see “Queens of England” in Chapter 19]. Executions, bursts of rage, political manipulation, attempts to subjugate the Irish, famines, and more framed her reputation. At the same time, she not only defeated the mighty Spanish Armada in 1588, she also dominated politics, economic growth, and art, and set the stage for England to become a primary power in the New World.
She was well-educated, with one of her tutors, Roger Ascham, stating that “Her mind has no womanly weakness, […] her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her memory long keeps what it quickly picks up.” For example, the number of people she witnessed being executed by her father, Henry the VIII - including her mother - taught her to keep her political and religious views to herself until she found herself in power. Once on the throne, Elizabeth quickly reorganized England’s power structure.
Columbus, mistakenly, believed that he had reached the East Indies when he made landfall in October of 1492, when he actually reached an island of the Bahamas. He was certain he had successfully found a “backdoor” to Asia, and to prove this, he returned with a number of indigenous captives, who he mistakenly called “Indians,” but were actually Taino people. Isabella ordered some of these enslaved people to be freed, and was even considering the prospect of rights for them under the Spanish crown, but she died in 1504, before the full extent of his discovery was known.
While Columbus was incorrect about his discovery, it set off a firestorm of exploration anyway, as the mere potential of a new route to Asia was too tempting to ignore. Exploration of the Atlantic and the Americans increased dramatically in the coming years, including three additional voyages by Columbus before it was formally recognized as something new, rather than the far reaches of Asia.
Isabella was not the only Spanish monarch to fund expeditions to the New World, but she did help to unify Spain and established a strong and profitable court which made Columbus’ and future expeditions possible. The wealth left behind after her reign allowed for Spain to hold a monopoly on the exploration and riches of the New World for hundreds of years. Yet, as Spain’s influence grew throughout South and Central America, the indigenous people suffered terribly.
Queen Elizabeth and England
By the turn of the 16th century, the New World became the obsession of all Europeans, and soon the Spanish were not the only nation to explore and conquer the Americas. The Portuguese, French, Dutch, and Swedish all made their presence known, and England’s Queen Elizabeth I made exploration the cornerstone of her reign. Queen of England from 1558-1603, Elizabeth remains one of the most famous and successful European monarchs. However, her reign was not without controversy, just like her mother’s before her [see “Queens of England” in Chapter 19]. Executions, bursts of rage, political manipulation, attempts to subjugate the Irish, famines, and more framed her reputation. At the same time, she not only defeated the mighty Spanish Armada in 1588, she also dominated politics, economic growth, and art, and set the stage for England to become a primary power in the New World.
She was well-educated, with one of her tutors, Roger Ascham, stating that “Her mind has no womanly weakness, […] her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her memory long keeps what it quickly picks up.” For example, the number of people she witnessed being executed by her father, Henry the VIII - including her mother - taught her to keep her political and religious views to herself until she found herself in power. Once on the throne, Elizabeth quickly reorganized England’s power structure.
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She was perpetually scrutinized by a society that viewed women as mere detours to the real figures of power: men. Britons largely believed women unfit and too temperamental for power. Their job as monarchs was to bring the right men into power by marrying or birthing them. Elizabeth, however, refused to play this role. Both before and after her coronation, she refused to marry. English nobles and international nobles courted her, but still she refused each; proclaiming that she had to make a careful decision for the protection of England. Sometimes she rejected them outright, proclaiming the need to be married only to her country, while other times she used their efforts to charm her to forge treaties, alliances, and more. In reality, she likely didn’t want to give up her power. While many feared a civil war if the queen did not bear a natural heir, she played her game well, and set England on the path that would see them become one of the largest and most formidable empires in world history.
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Temperamental (adj.), liable to unreasonable changes of mood.
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Throughout her reign, Elizabeth faced opposition, both internal and external, religious and secular, but she remained vigilant in her vision of an England rising in power. She poked the European bears of France and Spain with sanctioned privateering and raids on their international ports in the New World. Despite its initial weakness, her actions - including her controversial decision of appointing some of her nation’s most famous pirates in leadership roles - allowed naval forces to grow dramatically in size and skill which was pivotal in their defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.
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Privateer (n.), an armed ship and individuals holding a government commission and authorized for use in war, especially in the capture of enemy merchant shipping.
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Conclusion
While histories examining the discovery of the New World tend to focus on the men commanding ships and governing new colonies, women were side-by-side with the men in these efforts. Some, in disguise as men, crewed the ships. Many were the early colonists and settlers of the New World, bringing stability and connection to these early European ventures. Many more remained in Europe, providing the labor, crops, and materials that made these voyages and settlements possible.
Women were at the forefront of European exploration and the discovery of the New World, but why are they not remembered for being so? How do women’s roles in this process compare to that of men? How are women’s efforts remembered, and how can they be better celebrated or analyzed?
Draw your own conclusions
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Learn how to teach with inquiry.
Many of these lesson plans were sponsored in part by the Library of Congress Teaching with Primary Sources Eastern Region Program, coordinated by Waynesburg University, the History and Social Studies Education Faculty at Plymouth State University, and the Patrons of the Remedial Herstory Project. |
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Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- This website, Women in World History has primary source based lesson plans on women's history in a whole range of topics. Some are free while others have a cost.
- The Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media has produced recommendations for teaching women's history with primary sources and provided a collection of sources for world history. Check them out!
- The Stanford History Education Group has a number of lesson plans about women in World History.
Coming Soon...
Remedial Herstory Editors. "18. 1000-1600 WOMEN EXPLORERS AND LEADERS." The Remedial Herstory Project. November 1, 2022. www.remedialherstory.com.
Primary AUTHOR: |
Jacqui Nelson
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Primary Reviewer: |
Dr. Katherine Koh
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Consulting Team |
Editors |
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Kelsie Brook Eckert, Project Director
Coordinator of Social Studies Education at Plymouth State University Dr. Nancy Locklin-Sofer, Consultant Professor of History at Maryville College. Chloe Gardner, Consultant PhD Candidate in Religious Studies at Edinburgh University Dr. Whitney Howarth, Consultant Former Professor of History at Plymouth State University Jacqui Nelson, Consultant Teaching Lecturer of Military History at Plymouth State University Maria Concepcion Marquez Sandoval PhD Candidate in History at Arizona University |
Amy Flanders
Humanities Teacher, Moultonborough Academy ReviewersAncient:
Dr. Kristin Heineman Professor of History at Colorado State University Dr. Bonnie Rock-McCutcheon Professor of History at Wilson College Sarah Stone PhD Candidate in Religious Studies at Edinburgh University Medieval: Dr. Katherine Koh Professor of History at La Sierra University Dr. Jonathan Couser Professor of History at Plymouth State University Dr. Shahla Haeri Professor of History at Boston University Lauren Cole PhD Candidate in History at Northwestern University Modern: Dr. Barbara Tischler Supervisor for Hunter College Dr. Pamela Scully Professor of Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies and African Studies at Emory University |
Focusing on the century between the introduction of Christianity in Japan by Portuguese Jesuit missionaries in 1549 and the Japanese government's commitment to the eradication of Christianity in the mid-seventeenth century, this book outlines how women provided crucial leadership in the spread, nurture, and maintenance of the faith through various apostolic ministries.
Medieval women were normally denied access to public educational institutions, and so also denied the gateways to most leadership positions. Modern scholars have therefore tended to study learned medieval women as simply anomalies, and women generally as victims. This volume, however, argues instead for a via media. Drawing upon manuscript and archival sources, scholars here show that more medieval women attained some form of learning than hitherto imagined, and that women with such legal, social or ecclesiastical knowledge also often exercised professional or communal leadership.
The year was 1765. Eminent botanist Philibert Commerson had just been appointed to a grand new expedition: the first French circumnavigation of the world. As the ships’ official naturalist, Commerson would seek out resources—medicines, spices, timber, food—that could give the French an edge in the ever-accelerating race for empire. Jeanne Baret, Commerson’s young mistress and collaborator, was desperate not to be left behind. She disguised herself as a teenage boy and signed on as his assistant. The journey made the twenty-six-year-old, known to her shipmates as “Jean” rather than “Jeanne,” the first woman to ever sail around the globe. Yet so little is known about this extraordinary woman, whose accomplishments were considered to be subversive, even impossible for someone of her sex and class.
Much of her life is shrouded in mystery. Putting aside Cecilys role as mother and wife, who was she really? Matriarch of the York dynasty, she navigated through a tumultuous period and lived to see the birth of the future Henry VIII. From seeing the house of York defeat their Lancastrian cousins; to witnessing the defeat of her own son, Richard III, at the battle of Bosworth, Cecily then saw one of her granddaughters become Henry VIIs queen consort. Her story is full of controversy and the few published books on her life are full of guesswork. In this highly original history, Dr John Ashdown-Hill seeks to dispel the myths surrounding Cecily using previously unexamined contemporary sources.
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Eccentric Lady Jane Franklin makes an outlandish offer to adventurer Virginia Reeve: take a dozen women, trek into the Arctic, and find her husband's lost expedition. Four parties have failed to find him, and Lady Franklin wants a radical new approach: put the women in charge. A year later, Virginia stands trial for murder. Survivors of the expedition willing to publicly support her sit in the front row. There are only five. What happened out there on the ice?
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Elizabeth of York, her life already tainted by dishonour and tragedy, now queen to the first Tudor king, Henry the VII. Joan Vaux, servant of the court, straining against marriage and motherhood and privy to the deepest and darkest secrets of her queen. Like the ravens, Joan must use her eyes and her senses, as conspiracy whispers through the dark corridors of the Tower. Through Joan’s eyes, The Lady of the Ravens inhabits the squalid streets of Tudor London, the imposing walls of its most fearsome fortress and the glamorous court of a kingdom in crisis.
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Captain Thurídur, born in Iceland in 1777, lived a life that was both controversial and unconventional. Her first time fishing, on the open unprotected rowboats of her time, was at age 11. Soon after, she audaciously began wearing trousers. She later became an acclaimed fishing captain brilliant at weather-reading and seacraft and consistently brought in the largest catches. In the Arctic seas where drownings occurred with terrifying regularity, she never lost a single crewmember. Renowned for her acute powers of observation, she also solved a notorious crime. In this extremely unequal society, she used the courts to fight for justice for the abused, and in her sixties, embarked on perilous journeys over trackless mountains.
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Prehistory (3,300,000-3000 BC)
They live in caves and huddle around fires, but they are fully human, though they belong to our most ancient history. Risa the Arbiter has now spent years in her role and is known and respected throughout the area. Her children are half-grown and exhibiting traits of independence, both of thought and action. Her tribe has grown along with her and now needs more than one Arbiter can provide alone. Risa struggles with how best to organize her duties and establishes acolytes in each village to screen petitioners.
Ancient HISTORY (3000 BC - 500 AD)
The men of Athens gather to determine the truth. Meanwhile, the women of the city, who have no vote, are gathering in the shadows. The women know truth is a slippery thing in the hands of men. There are two sides to every story, and theirs has gone unheard. Until now.
Timely, unflinching, and transportive, Laura Shepperson’s Phaedra carves open long-accepted wounds to give voice to one of the most maligned figures of mythology and offers a stunning story of how truth bends under the weight of patriarchy but can be broken open by the force of one woman’s bravery. |
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Middle ages (500-1500 ad)
The earl of Trent's Norman widow, Blanche, and her English steward, Miles Edwulfson, take possession of Blanche's estates, hoping to live a life of peace and quiet. However, they run afoul of a baron named Aimerie, who is building an illegal castle and taxing the surrounding manors--including Blanche's--to pay for it. Aimerie has ambitions that go far beyond this castle, to the heart of the English throne, and he won't let anyone stand in his way. What's more, Aimerie's hot-headed son, Ernoul, lusts after Blanche and wants to make her his wife. When Blanche and Miles refuse to pay Aimerie's taxes, Aimerie vows to crush them.
Though Japan has been devastated by a century of civil war, Risuko just wants to climb trees. Growing up far from the battlefields and court intrigues, the fatherless girl finds herself pulled into a plot that may reunite Japan -- or may destroy it. She is torn from her home and what is left of her family, but finds new friends at a school that may not be what it seems
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For all fifteen years of her life, Pauline de Pamiers has witnessed an attack on her family, friends, and faith. It’s the early thirteenth century and the Pope and King of France are conducting a Crusade against the Cathars; the only crusade on European soil and against another Christian sect. As a member of this sect in France that sits outside the dominant Roman Church, Pauline is an outsider: young, but independent and bold.
11th century North Africa. In an attempt to change her destiny, love-struck Zaynab makes a false prophecy: that she is destined to marry a man who will create an empire. Although her plan backfires, Zaynab’s intelligence, beauty and ambition leads to four marriages, each lifting her status higher.
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Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the most powerful women in Europe, is crowned queen of England beside her young husband Henry II. While Henry battles their enemies and lays his plans, Eleanor is an adept acting ruler and mother to their growing brood of children. But she yearns for more than this - if only Henry would listen.
England, 1364: When married off at aged twelve to an elderly farmer, brazen redheaded Eleanor quickly realizes it won’t matter what she says or does, God is not on her side—or any poor woman’s for that matter. But then again, Eleanor was born under the joint signs of Venus and Mars, making her both a lover and a fighter.
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Early modern (1500-1800 ad)
Runner-up for the National Book Award for Children's Literature in 1969, Constance is a classic of historical young adult fiction, recounting the daily life, hardships, romances, and marriage of a young girl during the early years of the Pilgrim settlement at Plymouth.
Sirma used to be happy. She had a home, loving parents, and wonderful friends. But her quiet mountain village changed forever when she lost her two best friends to a gang of outlaws. The village elders did nothing, fearing the wrath of Hamza Bei – the head outlaw in the area. Not long after, the same outlaws returned and devastated her village. Sirma has had enough. On St. George’s day, she disguised herself as a man and lead her own mountain gang dedicated to protecting the mountain villages and searching for Hamza Bei to put a stop to his tyranny. But the path she has chosen is harsh and merciless. Clashing with gangs of outlaws, surviving the elements in the mountain wilderness, and keeping her men from becoming the scoundrels they’ve sworn to fight are just a few of the challenges. But the biggest issue was the fact that her comrades had no idea they were led by a woman.
The author of The Soong Dynasty gives us our most vivid and reliable biography yet of the Dowager Empress Tzu Hsi, remembered through the exaggeration and falsehood of legend as the ruthless Manchu concubine who seduced and murdered her way to the Chinese throne in 1861.
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Explorers and leaders
HOW TO TEACH WITH FILMS:
Remember, teachers want the student to be the historian. What do historians do when they watch films?
- Before they watch, ask students to research the director and producers. These are the source of the information. How will their background and experience likely bias this film?
- Also, ask students to consider the context the film was created in. The film may be about history, but it was made recently. What was going on the year the film was made that could bias the film? In particular, how do you think the gains of feminism will impact the portrayal of the female characters?
- As they watch, ask students to research the historical accuracy of the film. What do online sources say about what the film gets right or wrong?
- Afterward, ask students to describe how the female characters were portrayed and what lessons they got from the film.
- Then, ask students to evaluate this film as a learning tool. Was it helpful to better understand this topic? Did the historical inaccuracies make it unhelpful? Make it clear any informed opinion is valid.
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Elizabeth (1998)
The early years of the reign of Elizabeth I of England and her difficult task of learning what is necessary to be a monarch. IMDB |
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Durn, Sara. “Did a Viking Woman Named Gudrid Really Travel to North America in 1000 A.D.?.” Smithsonian. March 3, 2021. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/did-viking-woman-named-gudrid-really-travel-north-america-1000-years-ago-180977126/.
Groeneveld, Emma. "Women in the Viking Age." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified July 11, 2018. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1251/women-in-the-viking-age/.
Miles, Rosalind. The Women’s History of the World. London, UK: HarperCollins Publishers, 1988.
Sara Pruitt, How the Columbian Exchange Brought Globalization—And Disease. History
https://www.history.com/news/columbian-exchange-impact-diseases
Strayer, R. and Nelson, E., Ways Of The World. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2016.
Groeneveld, Emma. "Women in the Viking Age." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified July 11, 2018. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1251/women-in-the-viking-age/.
Miles, Rosalind. The Women’s History of the World. London, UK: HarperCollins Publishers, 1988.
Sara Pruitt, How the Columbian Exchange Brought Globalization—And Disease. History
https://www.history.com/news/columbian-exchange-impact-diseases
Strayer, R. and Nelson, E., Ways Of The World. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2016.