4. International Relations
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International relations as it pertains to women is a long complicated story. Much of this history is discussed in the last four World History chapters. Women became involved in rich ways in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in their peace keeping efforts. There they formed political organizations that advocated across borders for peace to try and prevent World War I and World War II. The failures of male leadership and the growing number of educated women entering law and governance in the war period earned women a long overdue seat at the negotiating table.
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Hélène Lefaucheux, Public Domain
Women and the UN:
After WWII, women took more official roles in diplomacy than they had before. In 1946, the UN established the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) as a global policy-making body dedicated to promoting gender equality and women's empowerment. The CSW has since been a key platform for discussing women's rights issues, reviewing progress, and developing strategies to advance gender equality worldwide.
The first meeting in 1947 in New York had 15 female government representatives. Eleanor Roosevelt was a crucial figure in the creation of the United Nations (UN) and served as the US delegate to the UN General Assembly from 1945 to 1952. At the first meeting, Roosevelt read "An Open Letter to the Women of the World," which is recognized as the "first official expression of women's voices within the UN and a blueprint for the role women should have in a new realm of international politics and collaboration." This letter was initiated by Hélène Lefaucheux from France. Lefaucheux also held prominent positions as the president of the French National Council of Women and the president of the International Council of Women (ICW) from 1957 to 1963. Their combined efforts aimed to promote human rights, social justice, and international cooperation.
From 1947 to 1962, the CSW focused on establishing standards and formulating international conventions to combat discriminatory legislation and raise global awareness of women's issues. Roosevelt served as the first Chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights and was instrumental in advocating for the adoption and implementation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1984. She traveled extensively, both within the United States and abroad, to raise awareness and engage in dialogue on human rights issues. The UDHR explicitly recognized the equal rights and dignity of all individuals, regardless of gender, and emphasized the importance of eliminating discrimination based on sex. This marked a significant step towards recognizing women's rights as human rights on an international scale.
Recognizing the need for data and analysis to support the legal rights of women, the Commission undertook a global assessment of women's status. This extensive research produced a detailed, country-specific overview of their political and legal standing, becoming the foundation for drafting human rights instruments.
In 1963, the UN General Assembly tasked the CSW with drafting a Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, adopted in 1967. The legally binding Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) followed in 1979, with the Optional Protocol in 1999, introducing the right of petition for women victims of discrimination.
After WWII, women took more official roles in diplomacy than they had before. In 1946, the UN established the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) as a global policy-making body dedicated to promoting gender equality and women's empowerment. The CSW has since been a key platform for discussing women's rights issues, reviewing progress, and developing strategies to advance gender equality worldwide.
The first meeting in 1947 in New York had 15 female government representatives. Eleanor Roosevelt was a crucial figure in the creation of the United Nations (UN) and served as the US delegate to the UN General Assembly from 1945 to 1952. At the first meeting, Roosevelt read "An Open Letter to the Women of the World," which is recognized as the "first official expression of women's voices within the UN and a blueprint for the role women should have in a new realm of international politics and collaboration." This letter was initiated by Hélène Lefaucheux from France. Lefaucheux also held prominent positions as the president of the French National Council of Women and the president of the International Council of Women (ICW) from 1957 to 1963. Their combined efforts aimed to promote human rights, social justice, and international cooperation.
From 1947 to 1962, the CSW focused on establishing standards and formulating international conventions to combat discriminatory legislation and raise global awareness of women's issues. Roosevelt served as the first Chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights and was instrumental in advocating for the adoption and implementation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1984. She traveled extensively, both within the United States and abroad, to raise awareness and engage in dialogue on human rights issues. The UDHR explicitly recognized the equal rights and dignity of all individuals, regardless of gender, and emphasized the importance of eliminating discrimination based on sex. This marked a significant step towards recognizing women's rights as human rights on an international scale.
Recognizing the need for data and analysis to support the legal rights of women, the Commission undertook a global assessment of women's status. This extensive research produced a detailed, country-specific overview of their political and legal standing, becoming the foundation for drafting human rights instruments.
In 1963, the UN General Assembly tasked the CSW with drafting a Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, adopted in 1967. The legally binding Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) followed in 1979, with the Optional Protocol in 1999, introducing the right of petition for women victims of discrimination.
Emma Goldman, Public Domain
But feminism looked different in different places around the world. And just because the UN said so, it doesn’t mean women gained rights, freedoms, and respect in their home countries. Women activists shared their advances and their setbacks across national borders, seeking to define their grievances and refine the language with which they demanded greater equality and agency. Clearly stating the characteristics that defined a feminist was a particularly challenging undertaking, and the very definition of feminism has been disputed and re-cast over the past several decades. But for the organizers who placed the interests of women at the center of their activism, the goals of Second Wave Feminism, while varied among many individuals and groups, nevertheless coalesced around the idea that women’s needs were important, their voices needed to be heard, and their issues, while personal, deserved to be addressed politically.
Radical Feminists advocate re-shaping society in a non-hierarchical and non-authoritarian manner. They reject the male dominance of power structures and advocate the creation of new models for advancing women’s power. Radical Feminists reject the idea that reform through traditional structures can bring about the liberation of women. The major force to be overthrown from a Radical Feminist perspective is patriarchy. Radical feminists debated whether it was more important to challenge the patriarchy or overthrow capitalism. But Barbara Ehrenreich put that issue into perspective in 1976, writing that ‘There is no way to understand sexism as it acts on our lives without putting it into the historical context of capitalism’. Although the Socialist, Marxist, and Radical Feminists disagreed as to whether capitalism or patriarchy was the more powerful source of women’s oppression, they agreed on the profound need to work for women’s liberation as they eschewed the institutional and reform focus of traditional Liberal Feminists.
A number of feminist groups took shape around specific issues, and membership in these groups occasionally overlapped. Cultural or Difference Feminists reject the notion that women should be more like men. They argue that there is a ‘female nature’ or ‘essence’ that makes women fundamentally different from men, and they reject any notion of male superiority. Emerging in the 1980s out of the debates over ‘equality versus difference’, these feminists argued that male and female genders had an equal moral status as human beings and an equal claim to rights but that women diminish their unique qualities when they try to be like men. Current re-definitions of gender fluidity and gender itself have rendered Difference Feminism an anachronism.
Anarcho-Feminists who espouse some of the philosophical ideas of Emma Goldman seek to dismantle institutions such as government, private property, and the family. They argue that women cannot be free within these institutions. Individualist Feminists stress personal independence and reject government help in achieving their goals. Amazon Feminists argue that women’s power is derived through their physical strength. Lesbian Feminists define their independence as fundamentally based on their sexual identity and complete freedom from men.
Radical Feminists advocate re-shaping society in a non-hierarchical and non-authoritarian manner. They reject the male dominance of power structures and advocate the creation of new models for advancing women’s power. Radical Feminists reject the idea that reform through traditional structures can bring about the liberation of women. The major force to be overthrown from a Radical Feminist perspective is patriarchy. Radical feminists debated whether it was more important to challenge the patriarchy or overthrow capitalism. But Barbara Ehrenreich put that issue into perspective in 1976, writing that ‘There is no way to understand sexism as it acts on our lives without putting it into the historical context of capitalism’. Although the Socialist, Marxist, and Radical Feminists disagreed as to whether capitalism or patriarchy was the more powerful source of women’s oppression, they agreed on the profound need to work for women’s liberation as they eschewed the institutional and reform focus of traditional Liberal Feminists.
A number of feminist groups took shape around specific issues, and membership in these groups occasionally overlapped. Cultural or Difference Feminists reject the notion that women should be more like men. They argue that there is a ‘female nature’ or ‘essence’ that makes women fundamentally different from men, and they reject any notion of male superiority. Emerging in the 1980s out of the debates over ‘equality versus difference’, these feminists argued that male and female genders had an equal moral status as human beings and an equal claim to rights but that women diminish their unique qualities when they try to be like men. Current re-definitions of gender fluidity and gender itself have rendered Difference Feminism an anachronism.
Anarcho-Feminists who espouse some of the philosophical ideas of Emma Goldman seek to dismantle institutions such as government, private property, and the family. They argue that women cannot be free within these institutions. Individualist Feminists stress personal independence and reject government help in achieving their goals. Amazon Feminists argue that women’s power is derived through their physical strength. Lesbian Feminists define their independence as fundamentally based on their sexual identity and complete freedom from men.
CSW, United Nations
UN Women’s Conferences:
Addressing the disproportionate impact of poverty on women in the 1960s, the CSW focused on women's needs in community and rural development, agricultural work, family planning, and scientific and technological advances. The Commission advocated for the expansion of technical assistance to advance women's rights, especially in developing countries.
In 1972, marking its 25th anniversary, the CSW recommended designating 1975 as International Women's Year, leading to the First World Conference on Women in Mexico City and the subsequent 1976–1985 UN Decade for Women. This period saw the establishment of new UN offices dedicated to women, including the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW).
In 1987, following the Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, the CSW took the lead in coordinating and promoting the UN system's work on economic and social issues for women's empowerment. Efforts shifted towards integrating women's issues as cross-cutting and mainstream concerns, and the Commission played a key role in highlighting violence against women internationally. This led to the adoption of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women in 1993, and in 1994, the appointment of a UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women.
Addressing the disproportionate impact of poverty on women in the 1960s, the CSW focused on women's needs in community and rural development, agricultural work, family planning, and scientific and technological advances. The Commission advocated for the expansion of technical assistance to advance women's rights, especially in developing countries.
In 1972, marking its 25th anniversary, the CSW recommended designating 1975 as International Women's Year, leading to the First World Conference on Women in Mexico City and the subsequent 1976–1985 UN Decade for Women. This period saw the establishment of new UN offices dedicated to women, including the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW).
In 1987, following the Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, the CSW took the lead in coordinating and promoting the UN system's work on economic and social issues for women's empowerment. Efforts shifted towards integrating women's issues as cross-cutting and mainstream concerns, and the Commission played a key role in highlighting violence against women internationally. This led to the adoption of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women in 1993, and in 1994, the appointment of a UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women.
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Gender-Chemicals.com
Perhaps the most significant CSW World Conference was the fourth, which occurred in 1995 in Beijing, China. There tens of thousands of women flocked together to craft the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and created systems to monitor it in the decades that followed. The most memorable event from the conference was when then First Lady of the US, Hilary Clinton, addressed the assembly and declared “If there is one message that echoes forth from this conference, it is that human rights are women's rights - and women's rights are human rights. Let us not forget that among those rights are the right to speak freely - and the right to be heard.” But this refrain, which followed a long list of violations too routinely found around the world, was not Clintons, it belonged to the grassroots efforts of thousands of women from around the world. Clinton was just the one to popularize it.
In fact, this groundbreaking event underscored, unlike anything else, the valuable lessons American activists could glean from their global counterparts. This included insights into the detrimental impacts of neoliberal economic policies and the structural adjustment programs of the IMF and World Bank on women.
The connections established during those ten days would lead to fresh enthusiasm, goals, and the emergence of novel organizations, such as the National Asian Pacific American Women’s Forum. Out of the eight thousand Americans who journeyed to China, over a thousand were women of color, affording them the opportunity to engage with and form alliances with 22,000 activists from various nations.
In fact, this groundbreaking event underscored, unlike anything else, the valuable lessons American activists could glean from their global counterparts. This included insights into the detrimental impacts of neoliberal economic policies and the structural adjustment programs of the IMF and World Bank on women.
The connections established during those ten days would lead to fresh enthusiasm, goals, and the emergence of novel organizations, such as the National Asian Pacific American Women’s Forum. Out of the eight thousand Americans who journeyed to China, over a thousand were women of color, affording them the opportunity to engage with and form alliances with 22,000 activists from various nations.
Draw your own conclusions
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Learn how to teach with inquiry.
Many of these lesson plans were sponsored in part by the Library of Congress Teaching with Primary Sources Eastern Region Program, coordinated by Waynesburg University, the History and Social Studies Education Faculty at Plymouth State University, and the Patrons of the Remedial Herstory Project. |
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Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- The National Women's History Museum has lesson plans on women's history.
- The Guilder Lehrman Institute for American History has lesson plans on women's history.
- The NY Historical Society has articles and classroom activities for teaching women's history.
- Unladylike 2020, in partnership with PBS, has primary sources to explore with students and outstanding videos on women from the Progressive era.
- The Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media has produced recommendations for teaching women's history with primary sources and provided a collection of sources for world history. Check them out!
- The Stanford History Education Group has a number of lesson plans about women in US History.
Topic Specific Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- C3 Teachers: This inquiry leads students through an investigation of the LGBTQ+ movement, primarily driven by the history of the movement through various accounts and perspectives. The compelling question—What makes a movement successful?—does not address whether or not the movement was successful, but instead assesses the components of a movement and whether the movement is in a period of growth or has already peaked. Although the focus of this inquiry is on the LGBTQ+ movement, parallels can be drawn to other social movements in history with respect to organization, activism, and overall execution, including the Civil Rights Movement or the women’s suffrage and rights movements. Specifically, this inquiry looks at four different aspects that can potentially shape a movement in its foundation as well as its rise, namely public reaction, government leaders and policies, Supreme Court cases, and personal experiences. Throughout the inquiry, students will examine each individual aspect independently, evaluating the merits, strengths, and significance of each provided source in the “Movement Analysis Organization Chart,” but the summative task will require a compilation and synthesis of the sources in this investigation in order to form an argument to address the compelling question.
- Voices of Democracy: In the speech Clinton positioned the United States as the moral authority in monitoring and enforcing sanctions for global human trafficking, while at the same time reiterating the importance of international cooperation and partnerships.
- Clio: In 1972, feminists in Washington, D.C. founded the nation’s first rape crisis center. Other centers were soon established across the country. In 1994, Congress passed the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). The act was created in response to the nation-wide, grassroots work of activists concerned with domestic violence, sexual assault, date rape, and stalking. This lesson introduces students to the history of efforts to stop violence against women.
- National Women’s History Museum: How has the Supreme Court shaped the lives of American women between 1908-2005? Students will analyze one of four Supreme Court cases that relate to the constitutional rights of women decided between 1908-2005. Students will become mini-experts on one Supreme Court cases and they will be exposed to the content, themes, and questions from the other three cases via peer to peer instruction of their classmates. The goal of this lesson is to introduce students to a broad range of Supreme Court cases that have impacted American women and to have them develop a working knowledge and expertise of at least one case by using primary sources such as the case ruling and secondary sources that will help students to understand the context.
- National History Day: Patsy Takemoto Mink (1927-2002) was born in Hawaii. She studied in Pennsylvania and Nebraska before moving back to Hawaii to earn her undergraduate degree and eventually received her J.D. from the University of Chicago in 1951. She moved back to Hawaii with her husband, John Francis Mink, and founded the Oahu Young Democrats in 1954. In the 1950s, Mink served as both a member of the territorial house of representatives and Hawaii Senate. After Hawaii achieved statehood in 1959, Mink unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. House of Representatives. Mink campaigned for the second representative seat in 1964 and won, making her the first woman of color and first Asian American woman to be elected to Congress. Mink is best known for her support of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society legislation, as well as her advocacy for women’s issues and equal rights. Mink worked tirelessly to earn support for the critical Title IX Amendment from her comprehensive education bill called Women’s Education Equity Act. Mink took a break from Congress after an unsuccessful bid for the Senate, but returned to Congress in 1990 and served until her death in September 2002.
- C3 Teachers: This twelfth grade annotated inquiry leads students through an investigation of a hotly debated issue in the United States: the gender wage gap. The compelling question “What should we do about the gender wage gap?” asks students to grapple not only with how to quantify and interpret the gap but also to consider ways of addressing the problem. Throughout the inquiry, students consider the degree to which economic inequality reflects social, political, or economic injustices or whether it simply reflects individual choices and the role the government should play in decreasing income inequality. Although this inquiry is rooted in a question about economics, no social issue is fully understood without examining a range of economic, historical, geographic, and political concepts in order to craft a full-bodied, evidence-based argument. This inquiry looks at the complexity of the gender wage gap issue through all four social studies disciplines. Students examine the structural factors that influence women’s choices as well as historical (e.g., Equal Pay Act of 1963) and pending (e.g., Paycheck Fairness Act) legislative efforts. Ultimately, students must find a way to measure the gender wage gap, determine if it is an issue worth addressing, and, if so, how to best address it, including private and public sector solutions.
UN Women
After the formation of the United Nations in 1945, UN Women was created. Their about page states:
"UN Women is the United Nations entity dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women. A global champion for women and girls, UN Women was established to accelerate progress on meeting their needs worldwide.
UN Women supports UN Member States as they set global standards for achieving gender equality, and works with governments and civil society to design laws, policies, programmes and services needed to ensure that the standards are effectively implemented and truly benefit women and girls worldwide. It works globally to make the vision of the Sustainable Development Goals a reality for women and girls and stands behind women’s equal participation in all aspects of life, focusing on four strategic priorities:
This website is a great resource for understanding international relations as they relate to women and gender issues.
After the formation of the United Nations in 1945, UN Women was created. Their about page states:
"UN Women is the United Nations entity dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women. A global champion for women and girls, UN Women was established to accelerate progress on meeting their needs worldwide.
UN Women supports UN Member States as they set global standards for achieving gender equality, and works with governments and civil society to design laws, policies, programmes and services needed to ensure that the standards are effectively implemented and truly benefit women and girls worldwide. It works globally to make the vision of the Sustainable Development Goals a reality for women and girls and stands behind women’s equal participation in all aspects of life, focusing on four strategic priorities:
- Women lead, participate in and benefit equally from governance systems
- Women have income security, decent work and economic autonomy
- All women and girls live a life free from all forms of violence
- Women and girls contribute to and have greater influence in building sustainable peace and resilience, and benefit equally from the prevention of natural disasters and conflicts and humanitarian action"
This website is a great resource for understanding international relations as they relate to women and gender issues.
Remedial Herstory Editors. "4. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS." The Remedial Herstory Project. January 1, 2024. www.remedialherstory.com.
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Consulting TeamKelsie Brook Eckert, Project Director
Coordinator of Social Studies Ed. at Plymouth State University Dr. Jason Charette Associate Professor of Practice in Political Science at Plymouth State University Dr. Laura Tilghman Associate Professor and Program Coordinator for Anthropology and Sociology at Plymouth State University |
Nonfiction's on Government
Women and Politics is a comprehensive examination of women's use of politics in pursuit of gender equality. How can demands for gender equality be reconciled with sex differences?
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Caroline Criado Perez investigates this shocking root cause of gender inequality in Invisible Women. Criado Perez unearths a dangerous pattern in data and its consequences on women’s lives.
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Women and Politics in a Global World is the only text that offers a cross-national and comparative examination of the impact of women on politics--and the impact of politics on women.
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Hillary Rodham Clinton reveals what she was thinking and feeling during one of the most controversial and unpredictable presidential elections in history.
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When Women Win delivers stories of some of the toughest political contests of the past three decades, including the historic victory of Barbara Mikulski as the first Democratic woman elected to the Senate in her own right and Elizabeth Warren’s dramatic Senate win. When Women Win is both a page-turning political drama and an important look at the effects of women’s engagement in politics.
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In Women in Politics, author and healthcare leader Mary Chung Hayashi offers a riveting exploration of the strides made by women in government. This essential, contemporary analysis bridges the gap between past and present, blending Mary's personal journey as an Asian American immigrant and former California State Assembly member with the inspiring stories of trailblazing women in political leadership.
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How to teach with Films:
Remember, teachers want the student to be the historian. What do historians do when they watch films?
- Before they watch, ask students to research the director and producers. These are the source of the information. How will their background and experience likely bias this film?
- Also, ask students to consider the context the film was created in. The film may be about history, but it was made recently. What was going on the year the film was made that could bias the film? In particular, how do you think the gains of feminism will impact the portrayal of the female characters?
- As they watch, ask students to research the historical accuracy of the film. What do online sources say about what the film gets right or wrong?
- Afterward, ask students to describe how the female characters were portrayed and what lessons they got from the film.
- Then, ask students to evaluate this film as a learning tool. Was it helpful to better understand this topic? Did the historical inaccuracies make it unhelpful? Make it clear any informed opinion is valid.
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Zero Dark Thirty (2012)
A chronicle of the decade-long hunt for al-Qaeda terrorist leader Osama bin Laden after the September 2001 attacks, and his death at the hands of the Navy S.E.A.L.s Team 6 in May 2011. IMDB In Her Hands (2022)
At 26, Zarifa Ghafari became one of Afghanistan's first female mayors and the youngest to ever hold the position. Filmed over two turbulent years, the film documents her personal battle for survival as her country unravels. IMDB |
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Bibliography
O’Reilly, Marie, Andrea Ó Súilleabháin, and Thania Paffenholz, CHAPTER 03 WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION AND A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE POLITICAL, “Reimagining Peacemaking: Women’s Roles in Peace Processes,” UN Women, 2015, https://wps.unwomen.org/participation/.