23. 1600-1850 Cloistered Women in AsiA
|
During the west's period of rapid growth and expansion, Asian empires continued to thrive, but pressures to modernize and westernize impacted women's lives everywhere. In China and India, the powerful empires provided stability before the gradual decline and intrusion from British imperialism. Japan saw major changes to women's lives and status as it underwent the Meiji Restoration. In the Ottoman Empire women saw elevated status that shifted and changed. Wahhabism also transformed the lives of Muslim women wherever it took root.
|
Wikimedia Commons
Women across Asia saw their lives changing and shifting as the world modernized, pressures to westernize both helped and hurt their status for various reasons. But women, wherever they were served their communities and made history. Despite the influx of modernization efforts, the influence of Buddhism, Confucianism, Shintoism, and Islam, continued to play prominent roles in women's lives and societal expectations. Women increasingly were encouraged to serve the community beyond the cloistered sphere, which influenced freedoms as well as a backlash of restrictions. What was it like for cloistered women in Asia? It depends.
China: In 1644 the Chinese were conquered by the Qing, or Manchu dynasty from Manchuria. Qing rulers had mixed feelings about Chinese customs. On the one hand, they worked to re-integrate Confucian teachings (as we know, traditional Confucian gender roles were typically devastating for women) but they also believed themselves superior, forbade intermarriage between the Manchu and the Chinese, and had segregated schools.
The Manchu attempted to rid the Chinese of certain practices. For example, women were forbidden from foot binding, a painful Chinese practice left over from the Song dynasty. But so much of Confucian thinking about women was engrained. Women were always referred to by their association with men: wife of __, or mother of __. Her strengths and social status was determined by her role as a mother or wife. Bearing children was essential.
In the Qing period, widow chastity was promoted. Women, especially widows were praised for not remarrying after the death of their husbands. Biographers recorded the lives of women deemed morally exceptional. Widows loyalty was recorded in stories, but not the names of the women. The family received awards from the Qing government and an arch was erected memorializing her. At the height of the Qing dynasty, 1644-1736, almost 7,000 women received these honors.
The Qing dynasty was a period of expansion for the Chinese, leading to an influx of native people into the Chinese population. Conquests transformed Central Asia, a cosmopolitan center along the silk roads, now a hotbed for conflict between the nomadic pastoralists and infiltrating agricultural society.
Despite these changes and increasing diversity within the empire, Qing women saw little improvement to their daily lives, which was highly restricted and revolved around the domestic sphere and rearing strong sons. Women would often be one of several wives, or become a concubine. The Qing campaigned to promote the ideal of a virtuous woman.
Classically hypocritical, men who had many wives valued the chastity and virginity of women. Literature of the period demonstrates just how important this was. Poems and songs were pretty extreme in just how much they valued female purity. They included stories of women who were so loyal to their virtue that they committed suicide to avoid rape or chose not to remarry when their spouse died. None of these stories actually named these women– so they were likely demonstrative of the ideal woman, rather than any real women. But nonetheless, when the Qing government sought examples of “chaste widows,” families of the period nominated over 6,000 different women who were honored with a stone arch.
Poet Wanyan Yun Zhu was an elite Chinese woman who married into the Manchu and was famous for reaching back and supporting other women. She was a patron of women’s literature and compiled poems written by other women. She also compiled biographies of important and moral Chinese women who lived exciting lives full of murder, sacrifice, and travels to exotic lands. The women she chose to include tell us a great deal about the pressure of chastity in her time. She selected faithful wives, submissive daughters, and other examples of ‘ideal” Chinese women.
The Qing dynasty declined slowly beginning in the late 1700s and culminating with British and other foreign imperialism in the late 1800s. Social uprisings against the Qing began with the White Lotus uprising in 1796–1820. Learn more about the women at the heart of the Qing's collapse, namely Empress Cixi and Queen Victoria, in the section on Imperialism. With this decline, came major changes in women's lives and status.
China: In 1644 the Chinese were conquered by the Qing, or Manchu dynasty from Manchuria. Qing rulers had mixed feelings about Chinese customs. On the one hand, they worked to re-integrate Confucian teachings (as we know, traditional Confucian gender roles were typically devastating for women) but they also believed themselves superior, forbade intermarriage between the Manchu and the Chinese, and had segregated schools.
The Manchu attempted to rid the Chinese of certain practices. For example, women were forbidden from foot binding, a painful Chinese practice left over from the Song dynasty. But so much of Confucian thinking about women was engrained. Women were always referred to by their association with men: wife of __, or mother of __. Her strengths and social status was determined by her role as a mother or wife. Bearing children was essential.
In the Qing period, widow chastity was promoted. Women, especially widows were praised for not remarrying after the death of their husbands. Biographers recorded the lives of women deemed morally exceptional. Widows loyalty was recorded in stories, but not the names of the women. The family received awards from the Qing government and an arch was erected memorializing her. At the height of the Qing dynasty, 1644-1736, almost 7,000 women received these honors.
The Qing dynasty was a period of expansion for the Chinese, leading to an influx of native people into the Chinese population. Conquests transformed Central Asia, a cosmopolitan center along the silk roads, now a hotbed for conflict between the nomadic pastoralists and infiltrating agricultural society.
Despite these changes and increasing diversity within the empire, Qing women saw little improvement to their daily lives, which was highly restricted and revolved around the domestic sphere and rearing strong sons. Women would often be one of several wives, or become a concubine. The Qing campaigned to promote the ideal of a virtuous woman.
Classically hypocritical, men who had many wives valued the chastity and virginity of women. Literature of the period demonstrates just how important this was. Poems and songs were pretty extreme in just how much they valued female purity. They included stories of women who were so loyal to their virtue that they committed suicide to avoid rape or chose not to remarry when their spouse died. None of these stories actually named these women– so they were likely demonstrative of the ideal woman, rather than any real women. But nonetheless, when the Qing government sought examples of “chaste widows,” families of the period nominated over 6,000 different women who were honored with a stone arch.
Poet Wanyan Yun Zhu was an elite Chinese woman who married into the Manchu and was famous for reaching back and supporting other women. She was a patron of women’s literature and compiled poems written by other women. She also compiled biographies of important and moral Chinese women who lived exciting lives full of murder, sacrifice, and travels to exotic lands. The women she chose to include tell us a great deal about the pressure of chastity in her time. She selected faithful wives, submissive daughters, and other examples of ‘ideal” Chinese women.
The Qing dynasty declined slowly beginning in the late 1700s and culminating with British and other foreign imperialism in the late 1800s. Social uprisings against the Qing began with the White Lotus uprising in 1796–1820. Learn more about the women at the heart of the Qing's collapse, namely Empress Cixi and Queen Victoria, in the section on Imperialism. With this decline, came major changes in women's lives and status.
Nur Jahan, Wikimedia Commons
Mughals: Further south, India’s Mughal empire fostered a new phase of interaction between the Islamic and Hindu cultures in South Asia. The Mughal leadership were Muslims, along with just 20% of the population, while the rest were solidly in the Hindu majority. Akbar, who ruled from 15 56–1605, clearly recognized that he needed to accommodate the Hindu majority. When he conquered north western India, he married several other princesses but did not force them to convert to Islam. He also supported the building of Hindu temples and made reforms on some Hindu restrictions on women that proved helpful to women’s status, including encouraging the remarriage of widows which was forbidden in many Hindu communities. He also discouraged child marriages. He persuaded merchants to set aside certain days for women to go to the market in relative seclusion. Akbar’s reforms were deemed too tolerant by some Muslim elite who wanted Hinduism eradicated. The philosopher Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi was one of Akbar's most vocal opponents. He blamed women from Sufi Islam and Hinduism for Akbar‘s deviation from the righteous path. He said, “because of their utter stupidity women pray to stones and idols and ask for their help. This practice is common, especially when smallpox strikes, and there’s hardly a woman who is not involved in this polytheistic practice.”
But when times demanded it, women did wield enormous power in Mughal society. For example, Nur Jahan was the favorite wife of Akbar’s successor, Emperor Jahangir, a raging drunk and opium addict. She became the power behind his throne meeting with dignitaries, consulting with ministers, and having coins issued in her name. She was Persian, attracting her family, poets, artists, scholars, and officers from her home region to bask in the luxury at her court in India. But it didn't hold. She was accused of too much spending, corruption and the extensive amount of foreign Persians didn't help. Jahangir exercised mass conversions to Islam and persecuted the Jainists.
In 1627, Shah Jahan, Jehangir's son by his second legitimate wife, Malika Jahan, became emperor of perhaps the greatest empire in the world at that time. Shah Jahan married many women, but his favorite was Nur Jahan's niece, Mumtaz Mahal whom he gave the title "Mumtaz Mahal" or the exalted one of the palace. She gave birth to fourteen children and died in her final childbirth. Shah Jahan had the Taj Mahal built as a tomb for her: considered to be a monument of undying love.
But when times demanded it, women did wield enormous power in Mughal society. For example, Nur Jahan was the favorite wife of Akbar’s successor, Emperor Jahangir, a raging drunk and opium addict. She became the power behind his throne meeting with dignitaries, consulting with ministers, and having coins issued in her name. She was Persian, attracting her family, poets, artists, scholars, and officers from her home region to bask in the luxury at her court in India. But it didn't hold. She was accused of too much spending, corruption and the extensive amount of foreign Persians didn't help. Jahangir exercised mass conversions to Islam and persecuted the Jainists.
In 1627, Shah Jahan, Jehangir's son by his second legitimate wife, Malika Jahan, became emperor of perhaps the greatest empire in the world at that time. Shah Jahan married many women, but his favorite was Nur Jahan's niece, Mumtaz Mahal whom he gave the title "Mumtaz Mahal" or the exalted one of the palace. She gave birth to fourteen children and died in her final childbirth. Shah Jahan had the Taj Mahal built as a tomb for her: considered to be a monument of undying love.
Mumtaz Mahal with attendant, Wikimedia Commons
|
Mumtaz Mahals tomb, Taj Mahal, Wikimedia Commons
|
Anti-Hindu thinking found a champion in Shah Jahan's successor, the Emperor Aurangzeb. He took a much less tolerant approach to establishing Islamic supremacy. Where Akbar had discouraged Hindu practices, Aurangzeb forbade them outright. Music and dance were banned at court; common vices like gambling, drinking, and prostitution were suppressed. Dancing girls were ordered to get married, and the custom of widows burning themselves on their husband’s funeral pyre was outlawed. The fracturing religious tensions in the empire opened the way for the British takeover a century and a half later. Learn more about the life of women under British colonialism in the section on Imperialism.
In Southeast Asia, Muslim women continued to hold significant political power. In Sumatra, many women ruled in the late 17 century, resulting in the male patriarchy banning women from exercising any political power. In Java, elite Muslim women served political roles in Royal courts. And in Indonesia, women had substantive contributions to the economy as laborers, consumers, and shopkeepers–beyond their domestic responsibilities.
In Southeast Asia, Muslim women continued to hold significant political power. In Sumatra, many women ruled in the late 17 century, resulting in the male patriarchy banning women from exercising any political power. In Java, elite Muslim women served political roles in Royal courts. And in Indonesia, women had substantive contributions to the economy as laborers, consumers, and shopkeepers–beyond their domestic responsibilities.
Meiji Restoration: Off the coast in Japan, rapid and massive change was changing the lives of women. The Shogunate that had brought centuries of peace (see Feudalism in Japan) ended in Civil War, out of which rose the Meiji Restoration. This 1868 political revolution that returned power to the Emperor Mutsuhito (the emperor Meiji). This move away from a military state ruled by warlords to an imperial nation, led to industrialization, modernization, westernization, and eventually imperialism at the end of the 1800s. For women, these changes would be monumental.
The reforms brought about by the Meiji included laws that effected a degree of social equality. It included land redistribution, class restructuring, and a trend toward democracy. Women's roles, rights, and responsibilities were part of this social upheaval. Traditional Japanese society had a mix of Confucian, Shintoism, and Buddhist ideals for women. The push for modernity and thus "modern women," simultaneously challenged the idealized female role as well as created a nostalgia for it. "Good wives, and wise mothers" were marketed by the imperial government to hold together the fabric of a rapidly changing society.
Women and girls were recruited to work in new government factories for production of industrial goods, like silk. In surveys, women reported that they were grateful for these jobs, felt they earned more than they may have elsewhere, and were grateful for the opportunity. The liberalizing of roles allowed women freedoms they hadn't previously had. The "moga" was a sexually liberated, urban woman who spent her money and consumed products of her choosing. As this period, known as the Taishō period, ended in 1925, the government passed universal male suffrage and excluded women from the vote-- to their dismay. Learn more about Japanese industrialization.
The reforms brought about by the Meiji included laws that effected a degree of social equality. It included land redistribution, class restructuring, and a trend toward democracy. Women's roles, rights, and responsibilities were part of this social upheaval. Traditional Japanese society had a mix of Confucian, Shintoism, and Buddhist ideals for women. The push for modernity and thus "modern women," simultaneously challenged the idealized female role as well as created a nostalgia for it. "Good wives, and wise mothers" were marketed by the imperial government to hold together the fabric of a rapidly changing society.
Women and girls were recruited to work in new government factories for production of industrial goods, like silk. In surveys, women reported that they were grateful for these jobs, felt they earned more than they may have elsewhere, and were grateful for the opportunity. The liberalizing of roles allowed women freedoms they hadn't previously had. The "moga" was a sexually liberated, urban woman who spent her money and consumed products of her choosing. As this period, known as the Taishō period, ended in 1925, the government passed universal male suffrage and excluded women from the vote-- to their dismay. Learn more about Japanese industrialization.
Wikimedia Commons
Ottomans: To the west, the Ottoman Empire controlled most of the modern Middle East. By the 1600s, the Empire began to lose its economic and military dominance over Europe. Europe had strengthened rapidly with the Renaissance era reforms. This growth would continue with the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolutions into the 1700s and 1800s. One of the most enduring images of Ottoman women's segregation is the harem, a place where the wives and daughters of royal men led segregated lives. The exotic and eroticized image of the harem is a Western obsession that overlooks the much more complex functioning of this important institution.
A big contrast between European and Ottoman women was harem life. Ottoman harems were much different from Chinese harems, and both were eroticized in the Western imagination. In Ottoman society, the harem served to exclude women, but also to grant them freedom of expression. Learn more about the early Ottoman experience of women in the section on the Renaissance and the Ottomans.
Lady Montagu: One remarkable woman who bridged the gap between East and West was Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Lady Wortley was an English aristocrat, writer, and poet. Today, she is mainly remembered for her letters, particularly her Turkish Embassy Letters describing her travels to the Ottoman Empire in the early 1700s as wife to the British ambassador to Turkey. These have been described as "the very first example of a secular work by a woman about the Muslim Orient." Aside from her writing, Lady Mary is also known for introducing and advocating for smallpox inoculation to Britain after her return from Turkey. She is also notable for her travels; her scandalous love life; and her progressive views on women’s education, slavery, and Islam. Montagu shared with other philosophers a celebration of Islam for what they saw as its rational approach to theology, its strict monotheism, and its teaching and practice around religious tolerance. In short, Montagu and other thinkers in this tradition saw Islam as a source of Enlightenment, as evidenced in her calling the Qur'an "the purest morality delivered in the very best language." By comparison, Montagu dedicated large portions of the Turkish Embassy Letters to criticizing Catholic religious practices, particularly Catholic beliefs around sainthood, miracles, and religious relics, which she frequently denounced. At a time when many Western Christians viewed Islam as the enemy and its followers as barbarians, her understanding of the religion was astounding and nuanced and disproved the myth that Christians and Muslims had always been adversaries.
During Montagu's time in the Ottoman Empire, she also saw and wrote extensively concerning the practice of slavery and the treatment of slaves by the Turks. She wrote frequently and positively about the various enslaved people that she saw in the elite circles of Istanbul, including eunuchs and large collections of serving and dancing girls dressed in expensive outfits. In one of her letters written back home, famously from the interior of a bath house, she dismissed the idea that slaves of the Ottoman elite should be figures to be pitied. In response to her visit to the slave market in Istanbul, she wrote "you will imagine me half a Turk when I don't speak of it with the same horror other Christians have done before me, but I cannot forbear applauding the humanity of the Turks to those creatures. They are never ill-used, and their slavery is in my opinion no worse than servitude all over the world." This again strongly contrasted with the reports of other travelers at the time who presented the Muslims as barbaric savages.
During her time in the Empire, Montagu was charmed by the beauty, style and hospitality of the Ottoman women she encountered. Montagu constantly praised the "warmth and civility" of Ottoman women. She described the "hammam," a Turkish bath, "as a space of urbane homosociality, free of cruel satire and disdain", and said that "hammam are remarkable for their undisguised admiration of the women's beauty and demeanor." She wrote about an amusing event where Turkish women were horrified by the sight of the corset she was wearing. She said, "they believed I was so locked up in that machine that it was not in my own power to open it, which contrivance they attributed to my husband." This reflects the varied experiences of women's freedom around the world.
Montagu wrote about the misconceptions that previous travelers, specifically male travelers, had recorded about the religion, traditions and the treatment of women in the Ottoman Empire. Her gender and class status provided her with access to female spaces that were closed off to European men, and therefore allowed her to give a more accurate account of experiences and freedoms of Turkish women. She published her letters under the title, "Sources that Have Been Inaccessible to Other Travelers." The letters draw attention to the wrought descriptions provided by previous (male) travelers. She writes, "You will perhaps be surpriz'd at an Account so different from what you have been entertained with by the common Voyage-writers who are very fond of speaking of what they don't know." In general, Montagu dismisses the quality of European travel literature of the 1700s century as nothing more than "trite observations…superficial…[of] boys [who] only remember where they met with the best wine or the prettiest women." She told them!
A pioneering scientist, feminist, explorer, religious scholar, writer, potential queer icon, and all round powerhouse, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu deserves the same fame as Dr. Jenner, who so often steals her credit for protecting Britain from smallpox!
A big contrast between European and Ottoman women was harem life. Ottoman harems were much different from Chinese harems, and both were eroticized in the Western imagination. In Ottoman society, the harem served to exclude women, but also to grant them freedom of expression. Learn more about the early Ottoman experience of women in the section on the Renaissance and the Ottomans.
Lady Montagu: One remarkable woman who bridged the gap between East and West was Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Lady Wortley was an English aristocrat, writer, and poet. Today, she is mainly remembered for her letters, particularly her Turkish Embassy Letters describing her travels to the Ottoman Empire in the early 1700s as wife to the British ambassador to Turkey. These have been described as "the very first example of a secular work by a woman about the Muslim Orient." Aside from her writing, Lady Mary is also known for introducing and advocating for smallpox inoculation to Britain after her return from Turkey. She is also notable for her travels; her scandalous love life; and her progressive views on women’s education, slavery, and Islam. Montagu shared with other philosophers a celebration of Islam for what they saw as its rational approach to theology, its strict monotheism, and its teaching and practice around religious tolerance. In short, Montagu and other thinkers in this tradition saw Islam as a source of Enlightenment, as evidenced in her calling the Qur'an "the purest morality delivered in the very best language." By comparison, Montagu dedicated large portions of the Turkish Embassy Letters to criticizing Catholic religious practices, particularly Catholic beliefs around sainthood, miracles, and religious relics, which she frequently denounced. At a time when many Western Christians viewed Islam as the enemy and its followers as barbarians, her understanding of the religion was astounding and nuanced and disproved the myth that Christians and Muslims had always been adversaries.
During Montagu's time in the Ottoman Empire, she also saw and wrote extensively concerning the practice of slavery and the treatment of slaves by the Turks. She wrote frequently and positively about the various enslaved people that she saw in the elite circles of Istanbul, including eunuchs and large collections of serving and dancing girls dressed in expensive outfits. In one of her letters written back home, famously from the interior of a bath house, she dismissed the idea that slaves of the Ottoman elite should be figures to be pitied. In response to her visit to the slave market in Istanbul, she wrote "you will imagine me half a Turk when I don't speak of it with the same horror other Christians have done before me, but I cannot forbear applauding the humanity of the Turks to those creatures. They are never ill-used, and their slavery is in my opinion no worse than servitude all over the world." This again strongly contrasted with the reports of other travelers at the time who presented the Muslims as barbaric savages.
During her time in the Empire, Montagu was charmed by the beauty, style and hospitality of the Ottoman women she encountered. Montagu constantly praised the "warmth and civility" of Ottoman women. She described the "hammam," a Turkish bath, "as a space of urbane homosociality, free of cruel satire and disdain", and said that "hammam are remarkable for their undisguised admiration of the women's beauty and demeanor." She wrote about an amusing event where Turkish women were horrified by the sight of the corset she was wearing. She said, "they believed I was so locked up in that machine that it was not in my own power to open it, which contrivance they attributed to my husband." This reflects the varied experiences of women's freedom around the world.
Montagu wrote about the misconceptions that previous travelers, specifically male travelers, had recorded about the religion, traditions and the treatment of women in the Ottoman Empire. Her gender and class status provided her with access to female spaces that were closed off to European men, and therefore allowed her to give a more accurate account of experiences and freedoms of Turkish women. She published her letters under the title, "Sources that Have Been Inaccessible to Other Travelers." The letters draw attention to the wrought descriptions provided by previous (male) travelers. She writes, "You will perhaps be surpriz'd at an Account so different from what you have been entertained with by the common Voyage-writers who are very fond of speaking of what they don't know." In general, Montagu dismisses the quality of European travel literature of the 1700s century as nothing more than "trite observations…superficial…[of] boys [who] only remember where they met with the best wine or the prettiest women." She told them!
A pioneering scientist, feminist, explorer, religious scholar, writer, potential queer icon, and all round powerhouse, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu deserves the same fame as Dr. Jenner, who so often steals her credit for protecting Britain from smallpox!
Ottoman Laborers, Cambridge University
Ottoman Reforms: But much changed for Ottoman women in the century after Lady Montagu traveled there. Muslim reformers sought to restrict women’s religious gatherings. Turkish women were able to keep some of the social power they enjoyed in their pastoral societies, but they remained uncounted, and unconsidered in imperial censuses. Elite Turkish women were increasingly veiled. Veiling is seen by some as an oppressive practice used to hide female bodies and show male ownership of them. For others, the veil provided women the freedom to simply be themselves, display their devotion, and be measured by their intellect and not their faces.
There was no doubt the empire was changing as it expanded. More and more enslaved women from the Caucasus mountains and the Sudan entered into the empire, diversifying the population. By 1839, the empire was becoming more modern with reforms across most systems.
Industrialization led many working class women to work full time jobs in factories, especially in rug production. This was a craft they had long worked on and followed as it modernized. Women working in factories doubled between 1880 and 1900.
For example, in 1880, workers in Usak numbered 3,000 women and 500 girls; by 1900 their total had increased to 6,000. In the final years of the century, rug production shifted from home workshops to large factories employing thousands of women, including girls as young as four years of age. Workdays were long: eleven hours for all but the youngest girls. Some women walked to work, others lived in dormitories furnished by the factory. In 1908, mobs of women pulled the rug out from under these mills, protesting against the move to factory production, as home working fit better with their lifestyles and culture. In addition to rug making, Muslim and non-Muslim Ottoman women worked in the shoe, silk, and cigarette industries. Men and women worked side by side in many factories, even though the textile, rug, and cigarette industries were classified as women's work. The large numbers of women and girls working in Ottoman factories drove wages down and helped make those industries more competitive with European producers. One European report described women's labor as “cheaper than water,” usually costing less than half that of male workers.
There was no doubt the empire was changing as it expanded. More and more enslaved women from the Caucasus mountains and the Sudan entered into the empire, diversifying the population. By 1839, the empire was becoming more modern with reforms across most systems.
Industrialization led many working class women to work full time jobs in factories, especially in rug production. This was a craft they had long worked on and followed as it modernized. Women working in factories doubled between 1880 and 1900.
For example, in 1880, workers in Usak numbered 3,000 women and 500 girls; by 1900 their total had increased to 6,000. In the final years of the century, rug production shifted from home workshops to large factories employing thousands of women, including girls as young as four years of age. Workdays were long: eleven hours for all but the youngest girls. Some women walked to work, others lived in dormitories furnished by the factory. In 1908, mobs of women pulled the rug out from under these mills, protesting against the move to factory production, as home working fit better with their lifestyles and culture. In addition to rug making, Muslim and non-Muslim Ottoman women worked in the shoe, silk, and cigarette industries. Men and women worked side by side in many factories, even though the textile, rug, and cigarette industries were classified as women's work. The large numbers of women and girls working in Ottoman factories drove wages down and helped make those industries more competitive with European producers. One European report described women's labor as “cheaper than water,” usually costing less than half that of male workers.
Ottoman Women, Wikimedia Commons
Reforms, known as Tanzimat, created educational opportunities for girls in state run schools in the mid-1800s. In 1869, a decree required BOTH boys and girls to go to grade school. This new law of course required more teachers, so in 1870 the Ottomans opened the Teacher Training College for Girls. Missionary schools also provided women with an education. New magazines and journals for women emerged as women became more literate. Like in the west, these types of magazines focused on women's issues, family life, religion, "acceptable" women's work like needle-work, and so on.
Feminism of course followed education. In 1876, the first Ottoman Women's Organization was founded to help wounded soldiers. Minority Ottoman women organized to influence reform. Although this was not at all part of the international women's movement, clearly Ottoman women could sense some internal shifts happening.
In the late 1800s, like everywhere else in the world, scholars and government officials debated the status of women in Ottoman society. They were critical of traditional Ottoman practices and began to shift toward “Western,” practices. They championed the “new” woman would help the nation succeed in the modern world; the “traditional” woman, in contrast, was trapped in the antiquated traditions of the past and progress. One of the common tropes of the early 1900s was the image of an old hag, who symbolized traditional culture, contrasted with a young Westernized woman of the future. This vision of womanhood was championed by the political group called the Young Turks. The Young Turks stated, “Women must be liberated from the shackles of tradition.” Women's status in the cities improved a bit, and women began to participate in public social activities, education improved, and women earned positions in professional roles like lawyers and doctors. Public spaces like restaurants were segregated to allow women to participate. In 1917, marriage laws change to become more secular, rather than religious. But in rural parts of the empire, traditional values prevailed. During WWI, the government created the Society for the Employment of Muslim Women, to fix the wartime labor shortages and encouraging women to work in the Battalions of Women Workers. In six months 14,000 women in Istanbul had applied for employment through the society! Like elsewhere, this brought women of all classes into the workforce previously dominated by men. The Ottoman Empire collapsed after WWI and the ensuing Turkish War for Independence (1919-1923). Women like Halide Edib Adivar and Nakiye Elgun played a public role in the war serving as corporal and supporting the war effort.
Feminism of course followed education. In 1876, the first Ottoman Women's Organization was founded to help wounded soldiers. Minority Ottoman women organized to influence reform. Although this was not at all part of the international women's movement, clearly Ottoman women could sense some internal shifts happening.
In the late 1800s, like everywhere else in the world, scholars and government officials debated the status of women in Ottoman society. They were critical of traditional Ottoman practices and began to shift toward “Western,” practices. They championed the “new” woman would help the nation succeed in the modern world; the “traditional” woman, in contrast, was trapped in the antiquated traditions of the past and progress. One of the common tropes of the early 1900s was the image of an old hag, who symbolized traditional culture, contrasted with a young Westernized woman of the future. This vision of womanhood was championed by the political group called the Young Turks. The Young Turks stated, “Women must be liberated from the shackles of tradition.” Women's status in the cities improved a bit, and women began to participate in public social activities, education improved, and women earned positions in professional roles like lawyers and doctors. Public spaces like restaurants were segregated to allow women to participate. In 1917, marriage laws change to become more secular, rather than religious. But in rural parts of the empire, traditional values prevailed. During WWI, the government created the Society for the Employment of Muslim Women, to fix the wartime labor shortages and encouraging women to work in the Battalions of Women Workers. In six months 14,000 women in Istanbul had applied for employment through the society! Like elsewhere, this brought women of all classes into the workforce previously dominated by men. The Ottoman Empire collapsed after WWI and the ensuing Turkish War for Independence (1919-1923). Women like Halide Edib Adivar and Nakiye Elgun played a public role in the war serving as corporal and supporting the war effort.
Wahhabism: But further south, on the Arabian peninsula, reaction to all this modernization was brewing. In the early 1700s, an Islamic scholar, Muhammad Ibn Abd Abdullah al-Wahab worked to address the weakening Ottoman empire through a return to what he saw as traditional Islamic thinking– the way women had been treated under Muhammad. He showed preference for Aisha’s contributions to the Hadith and for women’s agency. He believed women were spiritually equal to men and made no exceptions to the five daily prayers during menstruation, generally considered a positive because others considered menstruating women filthy. But the effect of Wahhabism varied greatly from his ideas— and for women, Wahhabism came to mean more patriarchy. Wahhabism spread from the Saudi Arabian peninsula throughout the Islamic world, through Southeast and South Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.
The Wahhabi movement found political headway when it was backed by a Saudi Arabian ruler. The result was the destruction of idols, the burning of books, the banning of vices, and the distraction of “non-authorized“ texts. Climates such as these are often dangerous for women. Wahhabism emphasized the rights of women within the patriarchal framework; he also returned to traditional Islam where women had the right to consent to their marriages and power over their finances and divorce.
One particularly problematic trait of Wahhabism was its return to “traditional” Islam for forcible control of women’s sexuality and ancient tribal punishments of sexually promiscuous women. “Promiscuity” could be anything from having a child out of wedlock, to adultery, to prostitution and everything in between. Women would be dragged by their male relations, before all male judges and juries, using only male witnesses to defend their actions. Women convicted would be subjected to a horrendous punishment like being buried up to their necks in dirt and then having stones hurled at their head until they died by those intimate relations closest to them.
Wahhabism still thrives in parts, but not all, of the Islamic world today, but to truly understand it would take a much deeper exploration than offered here. It's important to note that all of these ideas about Wahhabism are controversial among Muslims.
Conclusion: In Asia, women saw bold change driven by a desire to modernize as in Japan and the Ottoman Empire, stagnation that bred opportunities for imperialism as in the Mughal empire, and calls for a return to tradition as in Arabia, Everywhere, women's lives both changed and remained the same. Grounded in traditions present for centuries, if not millennia, women labored as they always. In other ways, the demands of the modern world, industry, and massive world wars put cracks into traditional expectations for women.
By the end of this era, so much remained in question. What changes did these empires endure and how did they impact the everyday lives of women - good and bad? What new freedoms did they allow women? How did the different ways women were treated influence the international relations between the diverging industrialized world?
The Wahhabi movement found political headway when it was backed by a Saudi Arabian ruler. The result was the destruction of idols, the burning of books, the banning of vices, and the distraction of “non-authorized“ texts. Climates such as these are often dangerous for women. Wahhabism emphasized the rights of women within the patriarchal framework; he also returned to traditional Islam where women had the right to consent to their marriages and power over their finances and divorce.
One particularly problematic trait of Wahhabism was its return to “traditional” Islam for forcible control of women’s sexuality and ancient tribal punishments of sexually promiscuous women. “Promiscuity” could be anything from having a child out of wedlock, to adultery, to prostitution and everything in between. Women would be dragged by their male relations, before all male judges and juries, using only male witnesses to defend their actions. Women convicted would be subjected to a horrendous punishment like being buried up to their necks in dirt and then having stones hurled at their head until they died by those intimate relations closest to them.
Wahhabism still thrives in parts, but not all, of the Islamic world today, but to truly understand it would take a much deeper exploration than offered here. It's important to note that all of these ideas about Wahhabism are controversial among Muslims.
Conclusion: In Asia, women saw bold change driven by a desire to modernize as in Japan and the Ottoman Empire, stagnation that bred opportunities for imperialism as in the Mughal empire, and calls for a return to tradition as in Arabia, Everywhere, women's lives both changed and remained the same. Grounded in traditions present for centuries, if not millennia, women labored as they always. In other ways, the demands of the modern world, industry, and massive world wars put cracks into traditional expectations for women.
By the end of this era, so much remained in question. What changes did these empires endure and how did they impact the everyday lives of women - good and bad? What new freedoms did they allow women? How did the different ways women were treated influence the international relations between the diverging industrialized world?
Draw your own conclusions
Empress Cixi, Public Domain
Red Lanterns, Public Domain
|
Who was the real Empress Cixi?
In this inquiry, students explore the rise of Empress Cixi, only the second Chinese empress to rule outright in Chinese history. 
How did Chinese women engage and lead in the Boxer Rebellion?
In this inquiry, students explore primary material about the role of women in the Boxer Rebellion.
| ||||
Lesson Plans from Other Organizations
- The University of Colorado has a lesson plan on the experiences of women in the Meiji Restoration. It includes primary sources. It includes the following essential questions: What did it mean to be a modern woman in Japan during the Meiji and Taishō Periods? What do modern Japanese women’s experiences tell us about the impact of rapid modernization on Japan and its people? What do modern Japanese women’s experiences tell us about changes in Japanese culture and society, generally, of the early 20th century (circa 1900-1930)?
- A past AP World History exam included a DBQ that compared industrialization in Russia and Japan, centralizing women's experiences in Japanese factories. The DBQ is here.
- This website, Women in World History has primary source based lesson plans on women's history in a whole range of topics. Some are free while others have a cost.
- The Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media has produced recommendations for teaching women's history with primary sources and provided a collection of sources for world history. Check them out!
- The Stanford History Education Group has a number of lesson plans about women in World History.
Bibliography
Li, Xiaorong. “Gender and Textual Politics during the Qing Dynasty: The Case of the Zhengshi Ji.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 69, no. 1 (2009): 75–107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40213692.
Mann, Susan L.. "89. Biographies of Exemplary Women" In Hawai‘i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture edited by Victor H. Mair, Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt and Paul R. Goldin, 607-613. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824852351-096.
Natana J. Delong-Bas. Wahhabi Islam : From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. https://search-ebscohost-com.libproxy.plymouth.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e000xna&AN=176916&site=ehost-live.
New World Encyclopedia contributors, "Mughal Empire," New World Encyclopedia, , https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Mughal_Empire&oldid=1086796 (accessed November 20, 2022).
"Qing Dynasty: Social Classes, Laws & Economy." Study.com. November 26, 2017. https://study.com/academy/lesson/qing-dynasty-social-classes-laws-economy.html.
Strayer, R. and Nelson, E., Ways Of The World. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2016.
"Women in the Qing Dynasty." Study.com. December 14, 2021. https://study.com/academy/lesson/women-in-the-qing-dynasty.html.
Mann, Susan L.. "89. Biographies of Exemplary Women" In Hawai‘i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture edited by Victor H. Mair, Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt and Paul R. Goldin, 607-613. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824852351-096.
Natana J. Delong-Bas. Wahhabi Islam : From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. https://search-ebscohost-com.libproxy.plymouth.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e000xna&AN=176916&site=ehost-live.
New World Encyclopedia contributors, "Mughal Empire," New World Encyclopedia, , https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Mughal_Empire&oldid=1086796 (accessed November 20, 2022).
"Qing Dynasty: Social Classes, Laws & Economy." Study.com. November 26, 2017. https://study.com/academy/lesson/qing-dynasty-social-classes-laws-economy.html.
Strayer, R. and Nelson, E., Ways Of The World. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2016.
"Women in the Qing Dynasty." Study.com. December 14, 2021. https://study.com/academy/lesson/women-in-the-qing-dynasty.html.
Primary AUTHOR: |
Kelsie Brook Eckert
|
Primary Reviewer: |
Jacqui Nelson
|
Consulting Team |
Editors |
|
Kelsie Brook Eckert, Project Director
Coordinator of Social Studies Education at Plymouth State University Dr. Nancy Locklin-Sofer, Consultant Professor of History at Maryville College. Chloe Gardner, Consultant PhD Candidate in Religious Studies at Edinburgh University Dr. Whitney Howarth, Consultant Former Professor of History at Plymouth State University Jacqui Nelson, Consultant Teaching Lecturer of Military History at Plymouth State University Maria Concepcion Marquez Sandoval PhD Candidate in History at Arizona University |
Amy Flanders
Humanities Teacher, Moultonborough Academy ReviewersAncient:
Dr. Kristin Heineman Professor of History at Colorado State University Dr. Bonnie Rock-McCutcheon Professor of History at Wilson College Sarah Stone PhD Candidate in Religious Studies at Edinburgh University Medieval: Dr. Katherine Koh Professor of History at La Sierra University Dr. Jonathan Couser Professor of History at Plymouth State University Dr. Shahla Haeri Professor of History at Boston University Lauren Cole PhD Candidate in History at Northwestern University |
Remedial Herstory Editors. "23. 1600-1850 CLOISTERED WOMEN IN ASIA." The Remedial Herstory Project. November 1, 2022. www.remedialherstory.com.
